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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

Uiap. Copyright No 

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THE CALORIFIC POWER 
OF FUELS. 



A COLLECTION OF AUXILIARY TABLES 

AND TABLES SHOWING THE HEAT 

OF COMBUSTION OF FUELS, 

SOLID, LIQUID AND 

GASEOUS. 

TO WHICH IS APPENDED 

THE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON BOILER TESTS 

OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL 

ENGINEERS ^DECEMBER, i8gg.) 



/ 



BY 



HERMAN POOLE, F.CS., 

Member of the Society of. Cheinical Industry ; the American Chemical Society , 

the Am^erican Society o/ Mechanical Engineers ; the American 

Institute of Mining Engineers : etc., etc. 



SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED. 
FIRST THOUSAND. 



NEW YORK: 

JOHN WILEY & SONS. 

London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited. 

1900. 



TWO COPIES KECEiViiiJ, 

Library of Congrot% 
Ufflce of thf 

APR 2 11900 

Ke^ltUr ef Ctpyrlgktft 



A^y^, 



xV-* 



61136 

Copyright, 1898, 1900, 

BY 

HERMAN POOLE. 



l^ <Lt n SECOND COPY, 



TO MY WIFm 
THIS BOOK IS AFFECTIONATELir 

DEDICATED. 



PREFACE. 



The books on fuels hitherto pubHshed in Enghsh, contain 
only a few scattered facts regarding their calorific powers, how 
they are obtained, and the practical use made of them. Quite 
frequently these books are consulted for these facts, and the 
information they do contain is utilized to its fullest extent. 
It was thought that a book especially devoted to this subject 
containing all the reliable data might be of interest, and in 
furtherance of that idea this book is published. 

The work commenced as a translation of M. Scheurer-Kest- 
ner's ''Poitvoir Calorifique des Covibustibles "/ but changes be- 
<:ame necessary to adapt it to American 'methods and data, 
and it was deemed advisable to simply use the skeleton of the 
Avork and fill it in, as considered best. Even this skeleton has 
hardly been preserved intact, as the arrangement of much of 
the material has been changed, many portions omitted, many 
new ones supplied, and in sorne of the original discussions tie 
argument has been so changed as to point nearly opposite to 
that advocated by M. Scheurer-Kestner. 

The work embraces only that portion of calorimetric de- 
terminations having a bearing on fuel values. A concise 
description is given of the leading calorimeters, those most 
commonly used being described more fully than the others, and 
some examples of working and calculations are added. 

Coal being the principal fuel naturally receives more space 
than any of the others, and most of the examples and calcuhi- 
tions are based on results from this fuel. The other fuels are 



VI PREFA CE. 

discussed briefly, some space being given to the heats of for- 
mation of the different kinds of gas, and the advantages gained 
by their use. A short account of theoretical flame tempera- 
tures is given, with the methods of calculating and applying 
the same. 

The Report of the Committee on Boiler Tests, submitted 
to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, in Decem- 
ber, 1897, is published in full, as are also several of the appen- 
dices to the report. This report revises the old method of 
1885, and gives the most recent methods of testing boilers 
and reporting the same. 

A set of tables of constants used in this and allied sub- 
jects is given, and finally a collection of calorimetric and ana- 
lytic data on all the kinds of fuel used. It is believed that these 
tables are fuller and more complete than any previously pub- 
lished in any language, and in collating them all available books 
and periodicals have been freely used. In all instances where 
the author was known, he has been credited with his results. 
Of course in such a large amount some unreliable data may 
have crept in, but all possible pains have been taken to exclude 
any such. The list of periodicals, etc., consulted will be found 
following the table of contents. 

For help in the work, and especially the tabular matter, the 
author is under obligations to many. Prominent among them 
are Profs. R. C. Carpenter, E. E. Slosson, W. O. Atwater, 
and D. S. Jacobus; and Messrs. William Kent, R. S. Hale, 
F. L. Slocum, W. B. Day, and C. E. Emery. The Astor 
Library and the Libraries of the American Society of Civil 
Engineers and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers 
w^ere freely used, and much help obtained from the librarians. 
Most of the cuts are from Scheurer-Kestner's book; a few 
were taken from Lunge and Hurter's Alkali-Maker's Hand- 
book; some from Groves and Thorpe's work on Fuels; a 
few from the Reports of the American Society of Mechanical 
Engineers; two from Dingler's Polytechnic Journal; one 



PREFA CE. Vll 

from the Scientific American Supplement ; and one from 
Engineering News. 

The work has been unavoidably delayed waiting for de- 
sired data, some of which came too late to be used. 

The author knows well that the book is far from perfect 
or complete, but it is as near so as could be made with the 
diverse kinds of material obtainable. Some errors, especially 
in the tables, may be found, which he hopes to correct in the 
future. 

That it may be found of service and aid to others in their 
work on fuels is the sincere wish of the author. 

HERMAN POOLE. 

New York, Jan. i, 1898. 



PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. 



The reception accorded the first edition has induced the 
author to make many changes and improvements in the present 
one. 

Besides making the necessary typographical corrections 
much new matter has been added and the tables of fuel 
determinations considerably enlarged, so that they now include 
the fuels of the known world. 

Among the changes made may be mentioned the new 
chapter on Liquid Fuels, which has been entirely rewritten ; the 
new pages on ice-calorimeters, Jones Sampler, Kent Draft 
Gauge, new smoke tests, new table of specific heat of water, 
including all the recent determinations. Prof. Jacobus' article 
on moisture in steam, new calorimeter pages and examples, 
etc., etc. 

In the fuel tables will be found valuable and extensive 
additions to the fuels of the United States, Germany, Scotland, 
India, Russia, Bulgaria, Africa, and other countries. 

The entire Appendix is new and is in accord with the report 
of the Boiler Test Committee of the A. S. M. E. for Dec. 
1899. Many other changes will be noticed in most of the 
chapters of the book. 

The interest in the work manifested by the leading engi- 
neers and chemists not only of the United States, but of Europe 
also, is very gratifying, and it gives me pleasure to be able to 
acknowledge cooperation from Hofrath Professor H. Bunte of 



PRE FA CE. IX 

Carlsruhe ; Professor W. Louguinine of Moscow ; Professor 
H. Hoefer of the Oesterreichische Zeitschrift fur Berg- unci 
Hiittenwesen, Vienna ; Professor W. Carrick Anderson of Glas- 
gow; Professor Aime Witz of Lille; Dr. F. Luhn, chemist 
of the Imperial Institute, London ; Professor R. C. Carpenter 
of Ithaca, N. Y. ; W. B. Phillips of the Alabama Geological 
Survey ; Prof. D. S. Jacobus of Hoboken, N. J. ; Chf. Eng. 
D. P. Jones, U. S. N. of Pittsburg; Dr. R L. Slocum of Pitts- 
burg, and many others. Especial mention maybe made of the 
new and previously unpublished determinations of the Bul- 
garian Coal, kindly sent by H. B. M. Consul F. G. Freeman, 
Sofia, Bulgaria. 

That this edition with its improvements may meet with as 
good a reception as the first one is the sincere hope of the 
author. 

HERMAN POOLE. 

New York, February i, 1900. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Preface o ^ 

Contents xi 

Authorities . . » xv 



CHAPTER I. 

Fuels i 

Definitions. Fuels. Calorific Value. Heat of Combustion. 
Thermometers. Metastatic Thermometers. 



CHAPTER II. 

Method of Determining Heat of Combustion 7 

Methods Depending on the Composition. On the Reducing 
Power. 

CHAPTER III. 

Calorimeters ^ 12 

Installation. Evaluation in Water. Correction for Readings. 

CHAPTER IV. 

Calorimeters with Constant Pressure , 20 

Calorimeters using Air or Oxygen. Favre and Silbermann's. 
Alexejew's. Fischer's. Thomsen's. Carpenter's. Schwack- 
hofer's. W. Thompson's. Barrus's. Hartley and Junker's. 

CHAPTER V. 

Calorimeters with Constant Volume 45 

Relation of Constant Volume and Constant Pressure. An- 
drews'. Berthelot's. Description. Working. Calculation. 

xi 



xu 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER VI. 

PACK 

Mahler' s Bomb 57 

Description. Working. Calculation. Examples ; Colza Oil, 
Coal, Gas, Coke. Atwater's. Kroeker's. Walther-Hempel. 
Witz's. Ice Calorimeters. 

CHAPTER VII. 

Solid Fuels 75 

Coal. Lignite. Peat. Coke. Charcoal. Wood. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Liquid Fuels 88 

Shale Oils. Petroleum. Gas Oil. 

CHAPTER IX. 

Gaseous Fuels 92 

Heat of Combustion from Analysis. Coal Gas. Gas of Gaso- 
genes. Producer or Air Gas. Water and Mixed Gas. Natural 
Gas. 

CHAPTER X. 

Calorific Power of Coal burnt under a Steam-boiler , 109 

Distribution of Heat. Weight of Fuel. Sampling the Fuel. 
Analysis of the Coal. Analysis of the Cinders. Duration of the 
Test. The Water Evaporated. Temperature of the Steam. 
Moisture of Steam. Corrections for Quality of Steam. Quality 
of Superheated Steam. Determination of Moisture in Horizontal 
Pipe. Combined Calorimeter and Separator. 

CHAPTER XI. 

Calorific Power of Coal burnt under a Steam-boiler— Con- 
tinued. Air Supplied and Waste Gases 125 

Volume of Air Necessary to Combustion. Volume of Waste 
gases by Analysis. Gas Sampler. Analysis of Gases. Calcula- 
tion of Volume from Analysis. Calculation of Volume of Air 
Supplied. Calculation of Weight of Waste Gases from Analysis. 
Volume of Waste Gases by the Anemometer. Fletcher's Ane- 
mometer. Segur's Differential Gauge. Hirn's Method. Kent's 
Gauge. Dasymeter. Econometer. Gas Composimeter. Tempera- 
ture of Waste Gases. Pneumatic Pyrometer. Carbon in Smoke. 



CON J'ENTS. 



XUI 



CHAPTER XII. 

PAGi; 

Calorific Power of Coal burnt under a Steam-boiler — Con- 
tinued. Calculation of the Heat Units 159 

Heat of Aqueous Vapor. Heat of Waste Gases. Heat of the 
Temperature. Heat of the Hygroscopic and Combustion Water. 
Calories of the Combustible Gases. Calories due to Soot. Dis- 
tribution of Calories — Loss. 

Flame and Flame Temperatures . \(y~. 

Weight and Heat Units of Carbon Vapor 173 

Evaporative Power of Fuel 174 



APPENDIX. 

Report of the Committee on the Revision of the Society Code 
OF 1885, Relative to a Standard Method of Conducting Steam- 
boiler Trials 17-/ 

Report of Committee. Rules for Conducting Trial. Form for 
Report. 

Tables ic) 

Fuel Tables 20. 

Index 2^ *, 



AUTHORITIES CONSULTED. 



The following list contains the names of the different pub- 
lications consulted to obtain data, especially for the tables. 
Dates are not usually given, as in many cases the entire file 
was used since 1868. 

Alkali Reports, England. 

American Engineer. 

American Gas Light Journal. ^ 

American Manufacturer. 

Annalen der Chemie und Physik. 

Annales de Chimie et Physique. 

Annales des Mines. 

Australian Mining Standard. 

Bayerisches Industrie und Gewerbeblatter. 

Bell, Sir I. L., Chemical Phenomena of Iron-smelting. 

Berichte der Deutscher Chemischer Gesellschaft. 

Berthelot, Essai de Mecanique Chimique. 

Berthier, Traite des Essais par la Voie seche. 

Bulletin No. 21, U. S. Dept. Agriculture. 

" University of Wyoming. 

" de la Societe Industrielle de Mulhouse. 

" de la Societe Chimique de Paris. 

de I'Association des Proprietaires d'Appareils a Vapeur du 
Nord de la France. 
Chemical News. 
Colliery Guardian. 

Comptes Rendus de I'Academie des Sciences. 
Crookes and Rohrig, Metallurgy. 
Dingler's Polytechnisches Journal. 
Dufrenoy, Traite de Mineralogie. 
Electrical Engineering. 



XV I AUrHORITIES CONSULTED, 

Engineer. 

Engineering. 

Engineering and Mining Journal. 

Engineering Mechanics. 

Engineering News. 

Groves and Thorpe, Chemical Technology, Vol. I. 

Gliickauf. 

Ice and Refrigeration. 

Iron Age. 

Ishervvood, B. M., Engineering Precedents. 

Researches in Steam Engineering. 
Jahrbuch der K. K. Berg-Akademie. 

fiir Geologic. 
Johnson, W. B., Report to Congress, U. S. A., 1844. 
Journal American Chemical Society. 

" Canadian Mining Institute. 

" Chemical Society. 

" Franklin Institute. 

" Society of Chemical Industry. 

" Imperial Institute. 

" Iron and Steel Institute. 
de I'Eclairage au Gaz. 

" des Usines a Gaz, 

du Gaz et de I'Electricite. 

•* fiir Gasbeleuchtung. 

fiir Praktische Chemie. 

" fiir Angewandte Chemie. 
of Gas Lighting. 
Kent, William, Pocket-book. 
Le Genie Civil. 

Memoires de la Societe des Ingenieurs Civils. 
Mineral Industry, Vol. I. 

Mineral Resources, U. S. A., various volumes. 
Mining Journal. 

M >rin and Tresca, Machines a Vapeur. 
Oesterreichische Zeitschrift fiir Berg- und Hiittenwesen. 
Peclet, Traite de la Chaleur. 
Percy's Metallurgy, Fuels. 
Philosophical Magazine. 
Pf>lytechnisches Centralblatt. 
Progressive Age. 

Proceedings : Alabama Industrial and Scientific Society, 
" American Gaslight Association. 



AUTHORITIES CONSULTED. xvii 

Pnoceedings: American Institute Mining Engineers. 
American Society of Civil Engineers. 
" Institute of Mechanical Engineers. 

" Institution of Civil Engineers. 

Reports: British Alkali Commission. 

British Association of Gas Managers. 
" Bureau of Mines, Canada. 

" Department of Mines, New South Wales. 

" Geological Survey, Ohio. 

" Geological Survey, U. S. 

" South Lancashire and Cheshire Coal Association on Boiler? 

and Smoke Prevention, 1869. 
Revista Minera. 
Revue Scientifique et Industrielle. 

Universelle des Mines. 
Sanitary Engineer. 
Scheerer, Lehrbuch der Metallurgie. 

Scheurer-Kestner, Pouvoir Calorifique des Combustibles. 
Science. 

Ser, Traite de Physique Industrielle. 
Stahl und Eisen. 
Stevens Indicator. 
Thomsen, Thermo-chemie. 
Transactions Newcastle Chemical Society. 
Ure's Dictionary. 

United States Census Bulletin, 1890. 
Williams, C. W., Fuel, its Character and Economy. 
Watt's Dictionary of Chemistry. 

Witz, Traite theorique et pratique des moteurs a gaz. 
Wurtz, Dictionnaire de Chimie, 
Zeitschrift Physikalische Chemie. 

" des Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure. 

Zeitung Berg- und Hiittenwesen. 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



CHAPTER I. 
INTRODUCTORY. 

FUELS. 

Fuels are those substances containing carbon, or carbon 
and hydrogen, which are utiHzed for the heat they produce 
upon union with oxygen. The products of this union, called 
combustion, are carbonic acid or carbonic acid and water. 
Many fuels, such as wood, peat, crude petroleum, etc., exist 
naturally; others, such as coke, charcoal, coal-gas, etc., are 
formed artificially. 

The {w€i par excellence to-day is coal. Improvements in 
transportation allow deliveries at points more and more 
remote from the mines, and the increasing demand, aided by 
new and improved machinery, tends to lower the cost. New 
locations are still being discovered, and the old ones are being 
worked more thoroughly and completely. A large portion of 
this book will be devoted to coal, other fuels being treated 
incidentally; and such treatment is fitting, since it is the study 
of coal to which the energies of physicists and engineers are 
still principally devoted in their researches on the calorific 
power of fuel. 

For convenience of discussion the fuels will be divided 
into three general heads: 

Solid fuels — coal, lignite, peat, coke, charcoal, and wood. 



2 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

Liquid fuels — petroleum, shale oils, vegetable and animal 
oils. 

Gaseous fuels — coal gas, producer gas, water gas, mixed 
gas, natural gas. 

CALORIFIC POWER OR HEAT VALUE. 

The quantity of heat generated by the combustion of 
a definite quantity of fuel in oxygen is called the calorific 
power, heat value, or heat of combustion. 

The expression calorific power or heat value has a wider 
signification than heat of combustion. In the popular sense 
the former terms apply to the measure of an industrial yield as 
well as to the heat given off by the fuel during its complete 
combustion. The expression Jieat of combustion, more nearly 
correct from a scientific point of view, is applied, on the con- 
trary, only to that quantity of heat generated by the substance 
when completely burnt; that is to say, when the carbon and 
hydrogen are completely changed to carbonic acid and water. 
The unit adopted for these quantities of heat is the Calorie 
and the British Thermal Unit. 

The Calorie is the quantity of heat absorbed by the unit of 
weight of pure water when its temperature is increased one 
degree Centigrade. This unit is usually one gram or one 
kilogram. When it represents the atomic or molecular 
weight, it is called the atomic or molecular calorie^ the gram, 
being taken as the atomic unity. 

The British Thermal Unit (B. T. U.) is the quantity of 
heat absorbed by one unit (usually one pound) when its tem- 
perature is increased one degree Fahrenheit. It is -^ of a 
calorie. 

A kilogram in burning generates n calories with a kilogram 
as unit and the Centigrade scale; a pound generates n calories, 
with a pound as unit and the Centigrade scale (W. Kent's 
pound-calorie); or, whatever the weight taken, there will be 
generated the same number of calories, using the same unit of. 



IN TROD UC TOR Y. 5 

weight and the Centigrade scale. Hence to pass from the 
Centigrade scale to the Fahrenheit scale multiply by the 
factor 1.8, that being the ratio of the two scales- 

In this work calories referred to the kilogram (kilo- 
calories) will be used, and the calorie will be the quantity of 
heat necessary k) raise the temperature of that amount of pure 
water one degree Centigrade. We will omit consideration of 
the variations in specific heat of water; to consider these it 
would be necessary to state that the initial temperature was 
o° C. But, as remarked by Berthelot, "' the calorie varies 
only to a very slight degree if we take the water at a slightly 
increased temperature — at 1 5° or 20°, for example; so that we 
are accustomed to regard as constant the specific heat absorbed 
by the water for each degree comprised in this interval of 
temperature, thus simplifying the calculations." We may 
lessen this little error by referring the calorie to a litre of 
water instead of a kilogram, that is, by measuring the water 
instead of weighing it; the weight of a litre of water diminish- 
ing from its maximum density at 4° C, while its specific heat 
gradually increases. The error of calculation is thus made 
less than the error of experiment. 

HEAT OF COMBUSTION. 

When the fuel contains hydrogen, its heat of combustion 
may be expressed in two ways. Hydrogen in burning pro- 
duces water, and this water may be either condensed or in the 
state of vapor. The same number does not apply to both 
cases, since the vaporization of the water formed consumes 
heat, which is not given up to the calorimetric bath. We 
usually consider the heat of combustion, the result of the 
experiment made under ordinary conditions, or when the 
water is in the liquid state; this is the general acceptance of 
the term heat of combustion. Some authors, however, prefer 
to consider the water as vapor. 

It is easy, however, to change from one system to the 



4 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

other. The heat of combustion of one kilogram of hydrogen 
being 34500 calories,* and the water formed being liquid at 
0° C, a portion of the 34500 calories is used to vaporize the 
water in the case where it is gaseous or considered as such. 

Experiment has shown that the heat of vaporization of 
water is expressed by the formula of Regnault, 

606.5 + 0.305/, or 

1091.7 -|- o.305(/ — 32°) for Fahrenheit degrees, 

in which t represents the temperature of the water in the state 
of vapor. Now one kilogram of hydrogen produces nine 
kilograms of water. To keep these nine kilograms of water 
in vapor, at 100° C. for example, there will be needed, by the 
abov^e formula, 637 calories per kilogram of water, or nine 
times as much per kilogram of hydrogen, which is 5733 
calories. These 5733 calories reduce to 5453 when the water 
is considered as being at 0° C. instead of at 100° C. Deduct- 
ing 5453 calories from 34500 calories representing the heat of 
combustion of hydrogen, the water formed being condensed, 
we obtain 29047, which number represents the heat of com- 
bustion of hydrogen, the water being in the state of vapor 
at o*^. We will call it, in round numbers, 29ioof calories, as 
is done by several writers. 

THERMOMETERS. 

Before taking up the study of calorimeters, we must con- 
sider the calorimetric thermometer, which is a most important 
part of the apparatus employed. The reading of the ther- 
mometer and the corrections are quite delicate and also very 
important, the calculation of the heat of combustion depend- 
ing principally on their accuracy. 

In this work calorimetric questions relating to fuel only 
will be considered ; hence a description of ordinary ther- 

*62iooB. T. U. t 52380 B. T. U. 



INTRODUCTORY, 



5 



mometers and their manufacture will not be needed. They 
are usually bought all finished, and should be obtained only 
from reliable dealers. 

Favre and Silbermann employed a thermometer of their 
own design, divided into J^ degrees and graduated from 32^ 
to 0° C. Each degree occupied about 0.3 inch. By means 
of a cathetometer they read to yi-g- of a degree. Their calori- 
metric bath of 2 litres capacity was subjected to at least 8° 
elevation in temperature, and the quantity of substance 
necessary to use at times exceeded 2 
grams. To lessen this amount of rise 
in temperature and also the time of 
combustion, they used longer thermo- 
meters, with scales reading to -§^^-0° or " 



Scheurer-Kestner used ^ 




- 3 

J 2 

1 








— c& 



even to -^^-^^' 

a thermometer divided to -5^^° with his 
Favre and Silbermann calorimeter. 
Since then they have been used gener- 
ally. Such thermometers are difficult 
to work with, and require care in ma- 
nipulation, and often a series of ther- 
mometers or at least two with scales 
in sequence are employed. If the 
initial temperature of a calorimetric 
bath is found a little above the highest 
graduation on the first thermometer, 
and if the rise in temperature of the 
bath amounts to two degrees, we must 

substitute the second one having for its lowest degree the 
highest of the first. Besides the trouble of substitution, it 
necessitates a correction for agreement of the degrees common 
to the two instruments. To obviate this difficulty the 
** metastatic " thermometer was invented by Walferdin and 
described in the Comptes Rendus de T Academie des ScienceSy 
1840, p. 292, and 1842, p. 63. 






Fig. I. — Metastatic 
Thermometer. 



O CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS, 

As it is not advisable to have the increase of temperature 
more than three or four degrees, and as this increase must be 
measured very closely, thermometers are used in which the 
stem is so drawn out and divided that small fractions of a 
degree can be easily read. The divisions of the scale should 
not be greater than J°, and much finer is desirable. 

Many physicists use special thermometers having the 
reservoir and the tube near the zero point blown large enough 
to hold all the mercury needed from o° to 1 6° or to the be- 
ginning of the divisions. The graduations, engraved on the 
glass, should then begin and the tube be drawn out so that 
they may be sufficiently fine. Too long a tube (over i8 
inches) is liable to damage. If the mercury cylinder be 
too large it does not respond quickly enough to minute 
changes in temperature. Readings of the thermometer are 
usually made v/ith a cathetometer, and hence -gL-° is sufficiently 
small. The length of a degree should be at least one inch. 

With all thermometers it is essential that the glass of the 
bulb should be rather thin, or the thermometer will be '* too 
slow." The slightest difference in temperature must be 
shown immediately by a movement of the mercurial column. 
To test for sensibility, read the height of the column and then 
place the hand on the bulb. If sufficiently sensitive the mer- 
cury will descend quickly from the expansion of the glass and 
afterwards rise. In thermometers divided to yw° ^^^^^ move- 
ment should be immediate, and over several hundredths. 

In ordinary calorimetric experiments the correction due to 
length of the mercury column flowing out of the bulb may 
be neglected for several reasons; the experiments should be 
made in a room where the temperature is nearly the same as 
that of the calorimetric bath, such correction would be of 
very little consequence for a slight change of temperature, 
a,nd the experimenter should plunge the thermometer into the 
iDath as deep as is necessary to take the reading at che level 
of the eye. 



CHAPTER 11. 

METHODS OF DETERMINING HEAT OF COMBUSTION. 

There are two methods for determining tne heat of com- 
Ibustion of substances — one by calculation based on the 
chemical composition, and the other by actual combustion in 
a calorimeter. The first method may be considered under 
two heads: that in which the units are calculated directly from 
the composition, and that in which they are calculated from 
the quantity of oxygen consumed during combustion in a 
crucible. 

CALCULATION FROM CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. 

Dulong stated that the heat generated by a fuel during 
combustion was equal to the sum of the possible heats gener- 
ated by its component elements, less that portion of the hy- 
drogen which might form water with the oxygen of the fueL 

His formula was 

X = 8080C + 34SOO (h - j), 
or expressed in B. T. U.'s, 

X = 14500C + 62 100 ^H — —J, 

in which 

X = the heat of combustion sought; 
8080 = the heat of combustion of carbon in calories ; 
14500 = '' ' '' '' ** *' " " B. T. U. ; 

34500= " '* ** ** *' hydrogen in calories; 

62100= *' ** '* '* '' " '' B. T. U. ; 

7 



8 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

H r- = the quantity of hydrogen less that supposed to form^ 

water with the oxygen. 

Other authors and experimenters have tried to interpret 
their results by a general formula with varying success. 
Many of them by working on a certain number of coals from 
a certain location work out a formula which applies to that 
set of coals, but not as well to another set. A few of them 
will be given. They all resemble Dulong's and are usually 
only modifications of his original one. 

The Verein Deutscher Ingenieure adopted the following: 

X = 8100C + 29000 f H — — j + 2500S — 600^, 

in which allowance is made for the heat of combustion of 
sulphur and the heat of the hygroscopic water. All the 
coefficients are round numbers and that for hydrogen, 29000, 
is the one in which the water is supposed to be as aqueous 
vapor, all the water being considered as passing off in that 
state. None of the other formulae uses this coefficient. 
It gives rather low results. The question as to the advis- 
ability of reckoning the heat due to sulphur is a debatable 
one. In no case does it amount to more than a verv small 
per cent and can have but little effect on the total. 
Balling gives as formula 

X = 8080C + 34462 (h - g) - 652(^ + 9H) 

to represent the actual occurrences in a steam-boiler fire work- 
ing under a pressure of steam corresponding to 300° F. 

Schwackhoefer made the following modification to allow 
for the correction due to hygroscopic water: 



X = 8080C + 34500 I H - - - 637B. 



(H-?) 



METHODS OF DETERMINING HEAT OF COMBUSTION. 9 

Mahler formulated one based on the results of calorimetric 
determination of the heat of combustion of 44 different kinds 
of fuel. It is 

_ 8140C + 34500H — 3 000 (O + N) 

X ■ — ■ — ! 

or simplified, 

X = 111.4C + 375H - 3000; 
or in B. T. U.'s, 

;r = 200. 5C + 675 H — 5400. 

With the coals he examined he found a very close agree- 
ment between the results calculated by this formula and 
those observed. A similar but not equally close concordance 
was found using the Dulong formula. With wood and lig. 
nites the difference amounted to 2 per cent. His formula 
applies also to other substances whose constituents are accu- 
rately known. Cellulose, the heat of combustion of which 
according to Berthelot is 4200 calories, by Mahler's formula 
is 4264. 

In summing up he says: ** From a scientific point of 
view, in the present state of our knowledge on the subject, 
we cannot give a general formula depending strictly on the 
chemical composition which will give the calorific power of 
combustibles, substances so complex and varied." 

Lord and Haas in a paper read before the American Insti- 
tute of Mining Engineers, Feb. 1897, state that in a series of 
forty Pennsylvania and Ohio coals they found differences 
varying from -[- 2.0 to — 1.8 per cent between the calculated 
and the observed results, and an average difference of — 0.12 
per cent. 

In 1896 Bunte published some analyses and calorimetric 
tests of gas-cokes, showing a difference of from -|- 0.04 to 
— 1.2 per cent. 



lO CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

Three elements enter into these cases, the analysis, the 
<:alculation, and the combustion; all may be erroneous. As 
the matter stands now the weight of error seems to be on the 
side of the analysis, as our methods of analysis, especially in 
water determinations, are not entirely satisfactory; yet it must 
be confessed that some of the most recent analyses give a 
basis trom which very close agreement can be calculated. 
With such fuels as coke, charcoal, or anthracite, having but 
little volatile matter, the results agree quite well, but with the 
bituminous coals, asphalts, mineral oils, etc., which are so 
very complex, the differences are greater.* In these the 
actual proximate chemical constitution seems to make a differ- 
ence. It may be safely stated, however, that for ordinary 
industrial uses, in absence of the possibility of a calorimetric 
test, and with coals having under 20 per cent of volatile 
matter, a fairly accurate approximation may be arrived at by 
calculation. 

The great inducement that formerly existed in favor of 
calculated results exists no longer. I refer to the difficulty 
of making a calorimetric test. These can be made now by 
means of the modern apparatus, so simple and almost self- 
regulating that the time consumed is but a small fraction of 
that needed for an analysis, and the labor and care, hardly 
anything in comparison. 

If possible, by all means have a calorimetric test. If not 
possible, use the best analysis available. 

CALCULATION FROM QUANTITY OF OXYGEN USED. 

This is the litharge reduction test. It depends on 
Welter's formula, which is based on the hypothesis that the 
heat of combustion is proportional to the quantity of oxygen 
consumed: 

N=mP, 

* Mahler's limit for Dulong's formula is O -|- N > 15. 



METHODS OF DETERMINING HEAT OF COMBUSTION. II 

in which A^ is the heat of combustion sought, m is the coeffi- 
cient previously determined, and P is the weight of oxygen 
necessary for the combustion of one kilogram of the substance. 
Giving P the value resulting from the use of the equiva- 
lents — 16 for oxygen to burn 6 of carbon, and 8 for oxygen 
±0 burn i of hydrogen — we have 

and the general formula becomes 

N = Zm (- + h) = 26880 (- + h).^ 

To use this method the combustible is mixed with an 
excess of litharge and heated in a crucible. The button of 
lead formed shows the amount of oxygen consumed, and from 
this is deduced the heat by means of the formula. The heat 
should be increased very slowly. Mitchell substituted white 
lead for litharge and claimed to obtain uniform results. 

This formula was recommended by Berthier, and has been 
used since by a few others. It. is faulty, as was shown by 
some of Berthier's own determinations in which contradictory 
results were obtained. Dr. Ure showed that no uniform re- 
sults could be obtained using the same materials. Scheurer- 
Kestner in 1892 showed that the formula not only gave erro- 
neous results, but actually reversed the relation of combus- 
tibles. In one case cited the heats actually obtained by a 
calorimeter were 8813 and 8750, while by the litharge test 
they were 7547 and 7977. The results were not only low, 
but reversed the ratio. 

This method is allowable only in cases where the crudest 
approximations are desired and where no analyses or calori- 
metric tests can possibly be made. 

* Value given by M. Ser. 



CHAPTER III. 
CALORIMETRY. 

Calorimeters for rapid combustion are invariably com- 
posed of a combustion-chamber and a calorimetric bath, 
usually a cylinder, surrounding it and containing a known 
quantity of water, the elevation in temperature of which is 
measured. The combustion is made in oxygen, pure or 
diluted. 

Combustion-chambers are either under a constant pressure, 
as in the calorimeters of Rumford, Favre and Silbermann, 
etc. ; or with a constant volume, as in the calorimeters of 
Andrews, Berthelot, etc. With solids the difference of results 
obtained under constant volume and constant pressure is so 
small that we shall not consider it. With gases, however, it 
is different, and we will state under which conditions the 
results have been obtained. 

The first calorimetric experiments date from Lavoisier and 
Laplace. In 1814 Count Rumford replaced the ice calorim- 
eter of Lavoisier by an apparatus in which the heat devel- 
oped during the combustion was absorbed by water. It was 
some time after, 1858, that Favre and Silbermann discovered 
the causes of the great errors of their predecessors, and pub- 
lished methods for correcting some while avoiding others. 
We owe to them, above all, the observation that, even when 
supplied with pure oxygen, combustion may be only partial, 
on account of the formation of combustible gases. They 
determined that this occurs generally, and gave a method of 
estimating the unburnt gases, so as to make allowances in the 
calculation. 

12 




CALORIMETRY. 1 3 

Carbon, which, before their time, had given only 7624 
calories to Laplace, 7386 to Clement-Desormes, 7915 to Des- 
pretz, 7295 to Dulong, and 7678 to Andrews, yielded to F. 
•& S. 8081 after correction for carbonic oxide in the waste 
gases. This number has since been increased to 8140 by the 
latest determinations of Berthelot. Berthelot and Vielle have 
shown that by using oxygen under pressure complete com- 
bustion can be attained. 

INSTALLATION OF APPARATUS. 

The apparatus should be placed in a room free from 
sudden changes in temperature and consequently protected 
from direct sunlight. If it is not entirely protected from 
solar radiation, the apparatus may be set up on the north 
side and shaded from the direct midday sun by a screen. 

The calorimeter cylinder with its accessories, as well as the 
distilled water used, should remain in the room long enough 
to acquire its proper temperature. The cylinder should be 
protected as much as possible from radiation by envelopes 
which vary according to circumstances. Favre and Silber- 
mann used a cylinder with a double wall. The external one 
was filled with water, and between this one and the cylinder 
proper swan's down was packed. The upper part of the 
cylinder also had a layer of thick paper covered with down 
on the under side. 

Berthelot states that the down is more troublesome than 
useful, and that it may be omitted with advantage. The space 
between the cylinder and its envelope forms a layer of air 
which is an excellent non-conductor. In modern instruments 
the down is replaced by a thick layer of felt. Berthelot even 
omits this covering, stating that the great cause of loss of 
heat was not from radiation, but due to evaporation produced 
by the agitation of the water in contact with the air. He 
surrounds his cylinder with a layer of air inside of the 
envelope of water, and outside of all a layer of felt 0.8 inch 
thick. By this means external influence is much reduced. 



14 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

EVALUATION OF THE CALORIMETf-R IN WATER. 

Before using a calorimeter its equivalent in water must be 
determined; that is, we must calculate to what quantity of 
water it corresponds in terms of specific heat. This is to- 
be added to the weight of water employed and includes the 
combustion-chamber, cylinder, and the immersed pieces, 
thermometer, supports, etc. 

Below is given an example showing the calculation of the 
value in water of a Favre and Silbermann's calorimeter: 

Copper, 1145.651 grams at 0.09516 specific heat = 109.008 grams^ 

Platinum, 22.810 " "0.0324 " " = 0.706 " 

Value in water of the chamber and accessories = 109.714 " 
Thermometer, weight of glass immersed, 12 grams at 0.198 = 2.400 " 
Mercury, 63 " " 0.332 = 2.070 " 

Total equivalent of water = 114.184 " 

which added to the 2 kilograms of water in the bath makes a 
total of 2 1 14. 184 grams of water. 

The calorimetric weight for the Berthelot bomb at the 
College of France in 1888 was 398.7 grams for bomb and 
accessories. 

The water value of the calorimeter used by Lord and Haas 
at the Ohio State University, Columbus, O., was determined 
as 465 grams. Mahler's apparatus had a water equivalent 
of 481 grams. Still, it is better to determine this equivalent 
by actual experiment, as we are not sure of the specific heat 
of the metal of the bomb, which might, however, be deter- 
mined by a sample taken from the original block of which it 
was made. 

Several methods may be employed for this. 

When we use the calorimetric bomb, we burn in the obus^ 
using 2000 grams of water, a known quantity of a substance 
of fixed composition, and of which the heat of combustion, 
is known, as sugar, or naphthalin. We then use less water 
and burn a smaller quantity of the substance. If I gram of 
substance was taken the first time, we may take 0.8 gram with 
1800 grams of water the second time. We then have two 



CALORJMETRY. 



15 



equations, rrom which we eliminate the heat of combustion of 
the substance and deduce thence the value in water of the 
cylinder, etc. 

This method, suggested by Berthelot, may be replaced by 
the following, to which he gives the preference: 

Pour into the calorimeter a certain quantity of warm 
water, at 60° C. for instance. This water is previously con- 
tained in a bottle, and the temperature is measured by a 
thermometer placed inside. As control, operate first without 
the bomb in the cylinder and afterwards with it in place. 

One test of this kind gave Berthelot a value of 354 calories 
for the bomb. The value deduced by calculation from specific 
heat was 355.4. Below is the detailed calculation giving the 
separate parts of the bomb. 





Soft steel. 


Platinum. 


Brass. 


Names of the Different Parts. 


Weight 

in 
Grams. 


Value in 
Water. 


Weight 

in 
Grams. 


Value in 
Water. 


Weight 

in 
Grams. 


Value in 
Water. 


Crucible 


1709.7 
221.2 

II. 7 


187.61 
24.28 

1.28 


728.8 
528.8 


23.63 
17.15 


20.0 
3.97 

108.9 








St/->n-rort . 


I 86 


Cone-screw and socket 
of fi rp-ra rri fr . 






0.37 


Movable accessoriesserv. 
ing for suspension and 
IfinHlincT 






33-0 


1.07 


Screw of bomb 


802.7 


88.08 


10.13 












Totals • . • 


2745.3 


301.24 


1290.6 


41.85 


132.9 


12.36 





Recapitulation. 



Metals Used. 



Steel 

Platinum 

Brass (calorimeter and agitator omitted). 



Weight of bomb 

Value in water by direct test. 



Weight in 
Grams. 



2745.3 

1290.6 

132.9 



4168.8 



Calculated 
Value in Water. 



30T.24 
41. 85 
12.36 



355-45 
354-7 



1 6 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



CORRECTIONS FOR THE READINGS. 

The corrections to be applied to thermometric readings, 
besides those due to the thermometer itself, are of various 
kinds, and naturally vary with the kind of calorimeter used. 
Some, however, are comiiioii to all. 

The correction relative to heating and cooling concerns all 
calorimeters. Favre and Silbermann made this correction with 
a coefficient previously determined, once for all, by a series 
of experiments. For example, the coefificient that they found 
for their calorimeter (± 0.0020225) represents the influence 
of the external temperature through the envelopes and pack- 
ings for one minute and one degree. 

Instead of a coefficient of correction thus determined, 
use preferably a system of correction devised by Regnault and 
Pfaundler. This system is superior to the preceding, as it 
allows consideration of all external conditions at the time of 
the experiment. It is evident, for example, that the evapora- 
tion of a liquid may vary in such proportions that a fixed 
coefificient will not always represent it. 

The system of Regnault and Pfaundler does not need 
previous experiments nor a determined coefificient. It rests 
on observation of the thermometer immersed in the bath a 
Tew minutes before and after the experiment, or at the times 
when external influence is at its minimum or maximum. 
Knowing the value of these two kinds of influence, it is 
easy to calculate it for the whole duration of the test. 

It is well to continue the observations before combustion 
for some five minutes. These five minutes should be pre- 
ceded by at least ten minutes' immersion of the combustion 
chamber with agitator, so as to establish equilibrium of tem- 
perature between the cylinder and the water. 

Suppose the initial correction corresponding to the first 
period to be zero — which is rare, it is true, but simplifies the 



CALORIMETRY. 



17 



demonstration — and that the observations have given the fol- 
lowing data: 



Initial temperature of bath 18.460° 

After I minute 19.700 

'* 2 "■ 20.540 

** 3 *' 20.670 

** 4 '' 20.680 

*' 5 '' 20.676 

'' 6 ** 20.665 

*' 7 ** 20.655 

" 8 " 20.640 

*' 9 " 20.630 

* 10 *' 20.620 



The combustion once commenced is continued till after 
the fourth minute and ends between the fourth and fifth 
minutes, but the equilibrium of temperature between the bath 
and the combustion-chamber is not established until the 
eighth minute, the time when the variation due to difference 
between them has become regular (0.010° per minute). 

A table of corrections is formed as follows: 



■e 


18.460° 








1st minute. 


... 19.700 


Mean 


19.080° 


Difference 0.620' 


2d - . 


... 20.540 




20. 120 


1.660 


3d '^ 


.., 20.670 




20.605 


2.14s 


4th '' 


... 20.680 




20.675 


2.215 


5th - 


20.676 




20.678 


2.218 


6th '^ 


20.665 








7th - 


... 20.655 








8th '' 


20.640 








9th " 


. ... 20.630 








joth " 


20.620 









1 8 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

The total elevation of temperature is 

20.676 — 18.460 = 2.216°, 

and the correction is 

20.676 — 20.620 = 0.056° for five minutes, 
or o.oi 1° for one minute. 



Then 



2.216 : 0.01 1 = 0.620 : 0.0031 
2.216 : o.oii = 1.660 : 0.0083 
2.216 : O.OII = 2.145 • 0.0107 
2.216 : O.OII = 2.215 • o.oiio 
2.216 : O.OII = 2.218 : O.OIIO 



Total 0.0441 

There is then 0.0441"^ to be added to the difference, 2.2 16°, 
increasing it to 2.260°, which is the corrected difference of the 
bath temperature, from which the heat of combustion of the 
substance burnt in the calorimeter is calculated. 

Regnault and Pfaundler's formula is 

Atn — Ato + K{tn — to) ; 

in which 

Atn = ascertained variation of temperature from the heat- 
ing and cooling of the calorimeter for one 
minute; 
Ato = variation at the beginning; 
tn — to = loss or gain during the total time of the test; 
n = number of minutes of test. 

Using the above numbers, 

K = ^ = 0.00496. 

2.216 ^^ 



CA L ORIME TRY. 1 9 

It will suffice, then, to find the total loss or gain to take 
the sum of all the gains or losses calculated by means of the 
coefficient K during the whole time of the experiment. 

Thus, 

0.620 X 0.00496 = 0.0031°, 
1.660 X 0.00496 = 0.0083°, 

and so on. 

For the full and exact method of correction devised by 
Pfaundler, see vol. ix., p. 113 et seq, of the Annalen der Chemie 
und Physik. 



CHAPTER IV. 
CALORIMETERS WITH CONSTANT PRESSURE. 

The first calorimeters were of constant pressure; that is, 
the combustion was carried on at the atmospheric pressure or 
very near it, and did not vary from the beginning to the end 
of the experiment. Hence the modifications in the volume 
of the gases before and after combustion exercised no influ- 
ence on the observed results. 

Rumford, in 1814, was the first who tried to correct 
external influences. He employed a practical method which 
has often been used since, and consists in giving the calo- 
rimeter bath a temperature in the beginning of the test less 
than that of the room, and allowing it at the close to attain 
a temperature in the same proportion above that of the room. 
His calorimetric apparatus was composed of a copper boiler 
of several litres capacity, heated by an interior tube through 
which passed the gaseous products of the combustion. The 
combustible was burnt in a little burner placed under the 
boiler, and the air used circulated around the heater before 
passing to the burner, thus preventing any loss of caloric by 
radiation. ' 

Dulong in 1838 used oxygen, and obtained much superior 
results. His calorimeter consisted of a rectangular copper 
box, 25 centimetres (about 10 inches) deep, 7.5 centimetres 
(2.9 inches) wide, and 10 centimetres (3.9 inches) long. It 
was closed at the upper part by a cover with a mercury seal. 



FAVRE AND SILBERMANN'S CALORIMETER. 21 

The oxygen passed into the calorimeter by a copper tube 
opening at one of the sides of the box near the bottom. 
The gases of combustion were drawn into a gas-holder. The 
apparatus was enclosed in another likewise rectangular, in 
which was put 1 1 litres (gf quarts) of water. This was the 
calorimetric cylinder. The water was kept in motion by an 
agitator. 

The unit chosen by Dulong was one gram of water whose 
temperature was raised one degree. He corrected the tem- 
perature observed, same as Rumford, but he also noticed 
that this correction was correct only when the first period 
was equal to the second. The results obtained by Dulong in 
1838 were not published till after his death, in 1843. For 
hydrogen and carbonic oxide they are but slightly different 
from the most modern determinations. 

CALORIMETER OF FAVRE AND SILBERMANN. 

In 1852 Favre and Silbermann published their first 
researches on the quantities of heat generated by chemical 
action and described their calorimeter. 

All rapid-combustion calorimeters and all with constant 
pressure intended for solid bodies are copied more or less after 
that of Favre and Silbermann. The principle and mode of 
execution in their general lines are the same; the form in some 
details or the material employed for the combustion-chamber 
has been modified more or less; but the general apparatus 
and accessories, as well as the method, have remained as 
F. & S. left them. We will describe, then, this calorimeter 
in its details, and outline the modifications made by other 
experimenters. 

The calorimeter called Favre and Silbermann's is composed 
of three concentric copper cylinders (Fig. 2, B, C, D), 
Cylinder B is the calorimeter cylinder; it is silver-plated and 
polished on the inner surface so as to lessen its emitting 
power; its capacity is a little over 2 litres (3 J pints), being 20 



22 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



centimetres (about 8 inches) high and 12 centimetres (4} 
inches) in diameter. In the middle is placed the combustion- 
chamber A (Figs. 2 and 3). 





Fig. 2. Fig. 3. 

Favre and Silbermann Calorimeter. 

The combustion-chamber is of burnished gilt copper, and 
is shown in Fig. 3. It is a slightly conical vessel, the large 
opening in which receives a stopper from which is suspended 
the burner made of a material suitable to that of the sub- 
stance operated on. The stopper itself carries two tubes, m 
and n, the first being an observation tube for the combustion, 
and is surmounted by a mirror M, which allows examination 
during the burning. The mirror receives light by the tube 
m, which is closed by an athermanous system of quartz, 
alum, and glass. The 'other tube, n, carries the jet for the 
oxygen. Tube b is closed, or removed during the test with 
coal, as it is of no use then. Tube c serves as the exit for the 
waste gases of the combustion, which pass through the coil cc 
(Fig. 2) before reaching the analytical apparatus. This coil 



FAVRE AND SlLBERMANN'S CALORIMETER 



23 



is sufficient to cool the gas to the temperature of the bath. 
Experimenters should solder the oxygen-jet to the stopper 
so as to diminish the number of openings. It is also advan- 
tageous to solder the coil to the cover. 

Certain fuels with very smoky flames require the addition of 
oxygen very near their surfaces. Scheurer- 
Kestner and Meunier-Dollfus employed the 
following arrangement (Fig. 4), a being the 
platinum capsule; cc' , the platinum tube, 
which at the part c fits tight in the mouth 
of the oxygen-jet; b, b, b, platinum suspen- 
sion-rods; dj fuel. 

It is impossible to prevent the genera- 
tion of more or less hydrocarbons and car- 
bonic oxide. The weight of the hydrogen 
and carbon is determined by causing the 
gaseous products of combustion to pass 
through an organic analysis tube, after re- 
moving the water and carbonic acid. For 
this purpose the exit-tube c (Fig. 3) is con- 
nected by a caoutchouc tube with a Liebig apparatus, fol- 
lowed by a U-tube of soda-lime. 

, The gas-current being rather rapid, an absorption appa- 
ratus must be used, large and powerful enough to completely 
free the gas from the carbonic acid and water before it reaches 
the red-hot copper oxide. This is done by passing the gases 
through another U-tube smaller than the preceding, and whose 
weight should vary only a few milligrams. The gases thus 
freed pass to the tube of hot copper oxide, where the com- 
bustible gases are burnt to water and carbonic acid, which are 
collected and weighed as usual. 

Scheurer-Kestner and Meunier-Dollfus employed a plati- 
num combustion-tube, and prefer soda-lime as absorbent for 
the water after the conclusive experiments by Mulder.* 




Zeitschrift fiir analytische Chemie, I. 4. 



24 CALORIFIC POWER OF lUELS. 

The coal for the experiment must be m pieces; if \n 
powder, the combustion is more difficult, unburnt gases 
escaping in considerable quantities, so that it is rare to obtain 
a complete combustion, and the cinders almost invariably 
contain small quantities of coke. To determine these, the 
capsule and tube are withdrawn from the combustion-cham- 
ber, dried, and weighed. The coke and the little soot on the 
sides of the capsule are burnt off by calcination in the air and 
a new weighing made, giving the weight of the carbon and 
cinder — elements which must be considered in the corrections. 
From half a gram to a gram of coal may be used. 

When the combustion-chamber containing the weighed 
substance is put into the calorimeter all the parts of the 
apparatus are connected by caoutchouc joints and tested. 
A slow current of oxygen * from a gas-holder is passed 
through the apparatus. The combustible is ignited by a few 
milligrams of burning charcoal, the joint in the tube being 
broken for the moment, and immediately reconnected without 
stopping the flow of oxygen. The little glass M allows inspec- 
tion of the combustion, the intensity of which can be regulated 
by the flow of oxygen from the gas-holder. The temperature 
shown by the thermometer is recorded each minute to obtain 
the data necessary for the correction spoken of above (pages 
\^ et seq.). 

To calculate the heat-units developed by the combustion 
the following elements are needed : 

1. Weight of the combustible used; 

2. Weight of the carbon remaining in the cinders unburnt 
or as black ; 

3. Weight of the cinders; 

4. Weight of hydrogen escaped unburnt; 

* To prepare the oxygen a copper flask of one litre capacity is used, in 
^whicli is placed some chlorate of potash, which is then heated by a gas 
flame. The gaseous current is very regular, except towards the end, when 
it may become tumultuous. The addition of a sriiall percentage of black 
oxide of manganese promotes the regularity of the gas generation. 



FAVRE AND SILBERMANN'S CALORIMETER. 2$ 

5. Weight of carbon escaped unburnt in the gaseous 
products; 

6. Elevation of temperature of calorimeter bath; 

7. Correction for heating and cooling caused by external 
influences on the calorimeter cylinder. 

The combustion of the coal by this means is rarely com- 
plete; there remain variable quantities of coke mixed with 
the cinders formed. An uncertainty attends the calorimetric 
value according as the combustion was slow or rapid, since 
this small quantity of coke contains more or less hydrocarbons. 
These differences, however, apply within very close limits, so 
that no fear need be entertained of large errors therefrom. 
When a coal, in pieces, has been burnt, there remains in the 
capsule only a few milligrams of coke or unburnt carbon. 
From this we calculate the calorimetric value, using 8080 as 
coefficient (heat of combustion of charcoal according to Favre 
and Silbermann); and in using that coefficient the hydrogen 
which may exist in the coke is naturally neglected, but this 
cannot be prevented. The carbon and hydrogen of the com- 
bustible gases which escaped combustion are transformed into' 
water and carbonic acid, and weighed as such. The hydrogen 
is calculated as in the free state (coefficient 34500) and the 
carbon as carbonic oxide (coefficient 2435). 

It is evident that these are only approximations, since the 
hydrogen is not disengaged in a free state, but as a hydro- 
carbon; and its coefficient (34500) should be diminished by the 
heat of formation of this compound, or, in other words, by the 
heat of combustion of hydrogen and carbon. This correction, 
however, is not possible; for neither the composition nor state 
of molecular condensation of such hydrocarbon is known. 
Similarly for the carbon, and its heat of combination in the 
carbon compound. There are, then, some uncertainties, 
but not of much importance, in the determination of the heat 
of combustion of fuels — uncertainties which the use of the 
calorimetric bomb has entirely avoided. 



26 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

A complete test will now be described, giving all the cor- 
rections. 

Suppose one gram of dried coal in fragments is used. 
After combustion in the calorimeter, weigh the capsule con- 
taining the cinders. 

Cinders after combustion , o. i lo gram. 

*' " calcination in the air o. lOO " 

Unburnt carbon remaining in cinders.... o.oio "■ 

Then 

Coal used, dried at ioo° C i .000 gram. 

Cinders o. 100 ' ' 

Pure coal (cinders out).. 0.900 *' 

Carbon not burnt during the experiment., o.oio ** 

There was collected from the combustion of the hydro- 
carbons and the carbonic oxide o. 10 gram of carbonic acid, 
corresponding to 0.006 of carbonic oxide (molecular ratio 
II :7); also o.oio gram of water, corresponding to o.ooii 
gram hydrogen (molecular ratio 9 : i). 

Increase of temperature of the bath 3-702* 

Correction 0.020 

Total increase 3. 722" 

Calorimeter equiv. in water 2. T14 kilos * and 3.722 X 2. 114 =7.8683 

Unburnt carbon o.oio X 8.080 cal. = 0.0808 

Carbonic oxide 0.006 X 2.403 " = 0.0144 

Hydrogen o.ooii X 34.500 " = 0.0383 

Total calories from 0.900 gram coal completely burnt = 8.0018 

I gram pure coal = 8.891 calories, 

I kilogram pure coal = 8891 calories, or 
I pound " " = 16003.8 B.T.U. 

* 2000 grams of water -|- 114 grams for value in water of calorimeter and 
accessories. 



FA VRE A ND SILBERMA NN ' S CAL ORIME TER. 



27 



In this example the corrections are not very important, 
since they do not exceed one-half per cent. These are the 
-ordinary conditions when the coal used is in pieces. With 
pulverized coal, on the contrary, the quantity of unburnt 
carbon and of combustible gases increases considerably and 
renders results less certain. The oppor- 
tunity we have to weigh the cinders of 
each test obviates pulverization of the coal 
to obtain an average sample of the cinders. 

Favre and Silbermann's calorimeter has 
been modified by Berthelot in several par- 
ticulars."^ He has happily modified the 
agitator and given it a coiled form, as 
shown in Fig. 5, a detailed description of 
which is given in his Essai de Me'canique 
Chimique, p. 14$. 

This agitator has the advantage over 
the old one of more completely mixing 
the water, with less force, and without 
accelerating evaporation. Fig. 5 shows 
it placed in the middle of the calorimeter. 
He has also replaced the gold-plated copper combustion- 
chamber by the glass apparatus which Alexejew used for 
combustibles. 




Fig. 5. 



* The F. & S. calorimeter with all accessories and an agitator (not me- 
chanical) costs about 500 francs ($100.00); with mechanical agitator arranged 
for a laboratory turbine or dynamo the cost is about 600 francs ($120.00). 
Berthelot's calorimetric bomb of platinum, enamelled inside and not 
double, costs no more, and is much preferable. A single operator can 
handle it, while the F. & S. apparatus requires two. 

Nevertheless, the manner of working the F. & S. calorimeter is de- 
scribed in detail, because its use fs surrounded by conditions easily realized 
in all countries. The calorimetric bomb requires oxygen compressed to 25 
atmospheres, which cannot be obtained everywhere. 



28 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



ALEXEJEW'S CALORIMETER. 

The apparatus used by Alexejew was composed of a glass 
combustion-chamber A (Fig. 6), in which he burnt the coal 

previously reduced to fragments. 
These fragments were placed on a 
platinum grating in the centre of 
the chamber. The fuel was kindled 
by means of a platinum sponge 
placed over it, on which impinged 
a jet of hydrogen from the gas- 
holder M^ opening at <:, correction 
for which is of course made in the 
calculation. The grating contain- 
ing the fuel was suspended from 
the glass rod a. As soon as the 
combustion was started the current 
of hydrogen was cut off by the cock 
/, and the oxygen allowed to flow 
in through by the waste gases pass- 
ing out through the coil. If the 
combustion was interrupted, it was 
rekindled by the hydrogen and 
platinum sponge. The hydrogen used was calculated in grams 
and multiplied by 34500. The number of calories thus ob- 
tained was deducted from that calculated from the rise in 
temperature of the bath. According to Alexejew, the im- 
portance of this correction never exceeded one-half per cent, 
and he never had to rekindle the fuel. 

Alexejew did not determine the unburnt gases, as experi- 
ence showed they never exceeded 0.35 per cent. It is im- 
possible, however, to determine the hydrogen of the hydro- 
carbons if desired, as these would be mixed with the hydrogen 
used for kindling, part of which may escape combustion. 
The kindling with hydrogen might, however, be replaced by 
that with carbon, as in the F. & S. apparatus. 




Fig. 6. — Alexejew Calorim- 
eter. 



A LEXEJE fV'S CAL OKI ME TER. 29 

The calorimeter contained 2500 grams (5.5 11 lbs. of 
water, a quantity somewhat larger than that usually employed, 
and which is based on the sensibiHty of the thermometer. 
To attain the same degree of precision it was necessary to use 
larger samples of fuel or else have more delicate thermometers. 
The water was kept in motion by the coil-agitator. 

The following determination of the calorific value of 
capryl alcohol will show the use of this calorimeter. 

Weigh the fuel container before and after the combustion 
to determine the weight of substance used. If very volatile 
a portion may be carried along by the gases and condense in 
the accessory apparatus. 

Data. 

Weight of Absorption Apparatus. 

Calcium chloride tube \ 43-9285 

(43.8383 

H,0 , 0.0902 

Geissler apparatus 3 /3o/2/ 

(71-7558 

CO, 1. 8169 

Soda-lime tube i 85.7280 

(85.7209 

CO, 0.0071 

Burner \ ^'''^\ 

\ 1-4378 

Substance burnt o.6jJi 

Second calcium chloride tube J 9 -334 

j 96.3272 

H,0 , . . . .0070 

Second Soda-lime tube -S 9 • 9 5 

(91.0872 

.0053 



2(^a 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 
Thermometer Readings. 





Readin 


gs taken every minute. 




17.500 




18.400 


20.36a 


.500 




.800 


.352 


.498 




19.200 


•342 


.495 




.500 


.332 


.494 




20.000 


.324 


.492 




.250 


.314 


.492 




.320 


.304 


.490 




.352 
.368 


.294 


17.488 = 


T 


.380 


.282 






20.380 


.272 


Combustion begins 


( 


Combustion ends. 


.262 


17.690 




20.380 = Ti 


.250 
.240 


18.020 




20.370 


20.230 




Calculation of Results. 




Substance 


burnt ; 


by weight 


.0.6773 


<< 


< < 
Terence 

)rrection 


'' CO, 


.0.6758 


Dif 


. .001 K 


Cc 


for Cooling. A = 0°.i04. 


' •^'^* J 






T, = 20.484 








T = 17.488 





i 



I 



T^ — T = 2.996 
The water and metal parts have a value of 2167.679 



grams. 



i^^ = 6494.367 Cal. 

2.990 



Corrections. 



By observation, the loss of heat from water absorbed in 
the CaCl tubes (0.0454 gram) was 28.1 calories. 

The loss from hydrogen in the unburnt gases was 25.6 
calories, and the loss from carbon in the same 7.9 calories. 



FISCHER'S CALORIMETER, 



2i)b 



Then 



grams of substance. 



6494.4 

28.1 

25.6 

7.9 

6556.0 calories obtained from 6758 
The calorific value is then 



6556^ 

6758 



9705. 



FISCHER S CALORIMETER. 

Fischer made a combustion-chamber of silver 0.940 fine, 
so that it would be less easily attacked 
by sulphur, from which the gaseous pro- 
ducts of coal are rarely free. He drew 
off the waste gases at the bottom of the 
apparatus (Fig. 7), thus avoiding the in- 
convenience of exit-tubes in the cover 
of the combustion-chamber. The cool- 
ling coil was replaced by a flattened 
pipe of a certain size. A represents 
the combustion-chamber. The oxygen, 
purified by passing over potash and 
then dried, arrived by the tube a fast- 
ened in the tube of the cover by a 
caoutchouc joint, and passed by means 
of the platinum tube r into a crucible 
z of the same metal, containing one 
gram of the fuel. The crucible was 
covered by a grating, which became 
red-hot towards the end of the opera- 
tion. This was intended to burn the 
waste gases, and the black deposited at the beginning. The 
gases flowed out at /, and after having encircled the outside 




Fig. 7. — Fischer's Cal 

ORIMETER. 



3P 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



of the crucible escaped at b. The thermometer / showed 
whether the temperature of the gases was the same as that 
of the bath. 

The calorimetric bath contained 1500 grams (3.3 lbs,) of 
water, and was protected against external influences by a 
wood casing, while the space C was filled with glass wool; 
but this is not necessary. ;z is a brass cover which may be 
dispensed with. The thermometer T is the calorimetric 
thermometer; in is an agitator moved by the string 0. The 
value in water of the one used by Fischer was 11 3. 5 calories. 
The coal was dried in nitrogen. The carbonic acid and the 
unburnt carbon were determined. 



thomsen's calorimeter. 

This calorimeter was designed especially for tests of gases 
and vapors. It is not adapted to tests of solid fuels. It 

consisted (Fig. 8) of a calorimetric 
bath of thin brass, with a capacity 
of some 3 litres (195 cubic inches), 
protected from radiation by a cylin- 
drical ebonite envelope ; and a plati- 
num balloon of half a litre (32.5 
cubic inches) capacity, in which the 
gases were burnt, being delivered 
through the opening at the bottom. 
The waste gases passed off 
through a coil, and a mechanical 
agitator kept the water in circula- 
tion. 

The dried gas was delivered 
with perfect regularity from a mercury gas-holder, sufficient 
air or oxygen being added to render it free-burning, and 
enough oxygen was supplied to insure perfect combustion. 
This he attained by always having 40 to 50 per cent in the 




Fig. 8. — Thomsen Calo- 
rimeter. 



CARPENTER'S CALORIMETER. 3 I 

waste gases. The gases passed off through a carbonic acid 
absorbing apparatus. 

To reduce to the minimum, or entirely suppress, the cor- 
rection for temperature he regulated his gas-flow so that the 
temperature was as much higher than the air at the close of 
the experiment as it was lower at the beginning. This he 
easily did by means of his hydrogen supply. If a liquid was 
tested, it was vaporized and burnt in a specially devised 
burner which allowed complete combustion of almost all com- 
pounds not having too high a boiling-point. If too high for 
heat vaporization, they were carried along by a current of air, 
oxygen, or hydrogen, as seemed best adapted. 

The water of the calorimeter being weighed, the lower 
portion was closed with a rubber stopper and by means of an 
aspirator a pressure of 8 to 12 inches of water was put on the 
apparatus to test the joints. When ready, the temperature 
of the bath and the air was noted for some minutes, the gas- 
holder reading taken, the burner placed in position, and the 
test commenced. The depression produced by the aspirator 
was about 0.4 inch during the whole test. The regularity of 
the working was shown by a gauge registering the pressure. 
When the temperature had reached the desired point the gas 
and electric current were shut off, the burner removed, and 
the opening closed again. The aspirator was used to draw 
dry air, freed from CO^ , through the apparatus to insure 
removal of all waste gases. The apparatus was then allowed 
to rest, taking the temperature at short intervals for fifteen 
minutes. He then had all the data required. 

carpenter's calorimeter. 

Prof. R. C. Carpenter devised a calorimeter especially for 
coal determinations, which is a modification or extension of 
Thomsen's. He has used it considerably in connection with 
work he has been engaged on, and the results credited to him 
in the tables at the end of the book were obtained with it. 



32 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



Fig. 9 is a sectional view of his apparatus. It consists of 
a combustion-cylinder, 15, with a removable bottom, 17,. 



A 



LJ= 



JMB^JL 




I 



Fig. 9. — Carpenter Calorimeter. 

through which passes the tube, 23, to supply oxygen, and alsa 
the wires, 26 and 27, to furnish electricity for the igniter. 
It also supports the asbestos combustion-dishes, 22, used for 



CARPENTER'S CALORIMETER, 33 

holding the fuel. At its top is a silver mirror, 38, to deflect 
the heat. The plug is made of alternate layers of asbestos 
and vulcanite. The products of combustion pass off through 
the spiral tube, 28, 29, 30, 31, which is connected with the 
small chamber, 39, attached to the outer case of the instru- 
ment. This chamber has a pressure-gauge, 40, and a small 
pinhole outlet, 41. Outside the chamber is the calorimetric 
bath, I, which is connected with an open glass gauge, 9, 10. 
Above the water is a diaphragm, 12, used to adjust the level. 

The calorimeter has an outer nickel-plated case, polished 
on the inside. The bath holds about 5 pounds of water, and 
uses about 2 grams of coal at a time. It is thus considerably 
larger than the bomb, and the charge being larger the time 
consumed by the test is longer, being some ten minutes for 
each gram burnt. The entire outside dimensions of the case 
are 9J inches high and 6 inches diameter. 

In using the apparatus the coal is ground to a powder in a 
mill or mortar. The asbestos cup is heated to burn off ail 
organic matter and weighed. The sample is then placed in 
it, and the whole weighed again. This gives the weight of 
the coal used. Place it in the combustion-chamber, raise the 
platinum igniting wire above the coal, make the connections 
with the battery, and as soon as the heat generated causes the 
water to rise in the glass tube turn on the oxygen, and by 
pulling down the wires kindle the coal. At this instant the 
reading on the glass scale must be taken. 

By means of the glasses 33, 34, and 36 watch the 
progress of the combustion, and as soon as finished take the 
scale-reading and the time. The difference between this 
scale-reading and the one previously made is the '* actual " 
scale-reading. 

To correct for radiation, allow the apparatus to stand with 
the oxygen shut off for a length of time equal to that of the 
combustion, and take the scale-reading and the time. The 



34 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS, 

difference between this and the '' actual'* reading is to be 
added to the ** actual " for the " corrected ** reading. 

Now, by inspection of the calibration-curve previously- 
prepared, at the point corresponding to the corrected scale- 
reading will be found the B. T. U.'s for the quantity burnt. 
The ash is determined by weighing the asbestos cup after the 
combustion. 

The following shows all the calculation needed: 

Weight of crucible (asbestos cup) .... i .269 grams. 

'* *' '* and coal 3-Oi7 

" ash 1.567 '' 

'' *' combustibles 1.450 *' 

"■ " ash 0.297 " 

" " coal 1.747 ** 

1.747 grams X 0.002205 = 0.003852 pounds. 

First scale-reading 3.90 inches; time 2 hrs. 55 m. 

Second" " 14.70 " " 3 '' 20'' 

Third " '' 14.30 " " 3 " 45 " 

''Actual" scale-reading. 14.70— 3.90= 10.80 inches. 
Radiation correction 14.70— 14.30= .40 " 



Corrected reading 11.20 *' 

On the calibration-sheet 11.2 corresponds to 46.25 
B. T. U.'s, and 46.25 B. T. U. -^ 0.003852 = 12000 B. T. U. 
per pound. 

All air must be removed from the water in the bath, 
the apparatus must work at a constant pressure, and the 
pressure for which it is calibrated. A pressure of 10 inches 
of water has been found satisfactory. Complete combustion 
is always attained in the asbestos cups. 

It will be seen that the use of thermometers is obviated, 
and also all corrections but one. The apparatus is intended 



S CH WA CKHOFER S CALOR I ME TER, 



35 



for ordinary every-day work, and will give good comparative 
results when used according to directions, which must be 
implicitly followed. The amount of calculation is reduced to 
a minimum, and there are no delicate parts requiring extra 
care and adjustment. For the purpose intended, it seems an 
advance over the others previously used, which could never 
give more faint approximations to correct results. 

schwackhofer's calorimeter. 

In 1884 Schwackhofer published calorimetric researches 
on different kinds of coal, using a calorimeter in which he rnade 




Fig. 10. — Schwackhofer Calorimeter. 



several modifications intended to render it specially applicable 
to such fuel. 

He considered it advisable to use as much as five or six 
grams of coal, which is six times that generally used. He 
burnt at the same time and under definite conditions, shown 



3^ CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

in the sketch (Fig. lo), a certain quantity of sugar-charcoal, 
the combustion of which was intended to accelerate and com- 
plete that of the coal tested. 

In the figure (Fig. \6)ab represents the combustion-cham- 
ber, c the calorimetric bath. Minor details of accessories, en- 
velopes, regulators, etc., are omitted. The burner proper is of 
platinum and of two pieces, a and b, superimposed, the coal 
being placed in the lower portion, the sugar-charcoal in the 
upper one. All pieces of the burner may be removed for the 
introduction of the coal and for cleaning. The two combus- 
tibles rest on perforated plates of platinum, in which the per- 
forations, made by a special machine, are so small that light 
can hardly pass through, and from which the cinders can be 
completely removed ; the holes in the upper one are slightly 
larger than those of the lower. The oxygen enters through 
three tubes, e, f, g. Tubes g and in pass outside the bath, and 
carry mirrors to allow inspection during the burning. The 
waste gases pass off at the bottom through a coil n, and are 
collected in H. This vessel is simply to detect smoking, he 
having found that it happened only when the pressure was di- 
minished at the burner, and that it could be stopped by a rein- 
statement of the normal pressure, p represents an aspirator, in 
which are collected the waste gases. Another one, not shown 
in the sketch, serves to contain the gas analyzed. Both are 
filled with water covered with a film of oil. The oxygen 
passes through a jar s filled with soda-lime, a bottle o fur- 
nished with a thermometer, a cock t as regulator of the flow, 
and one or more wash-bottles q containing sulphuric acid. 

The calorimeter-chamber c contains 5200 cc. (4.6 qts.) of 
water. 5 or 6 grams (77 to 92.5 grains) of coal were used, with 
2 to 4 grams (31 to 62 grains) of sugar-carbon of a known 
calorific value. The temperature of the bath rose about 10° 
C, and the experiment generally lasted an hour. 

The sugar-carbon was first kindled in the upper part of the 
burner, the under portion burning first. From this sparks 



W. THOMPSON'S CALORIMETER. IJ 

ivcre thrown to the coal, and it soon kindled. The oxygen 
ilowed in by g and e. When combustion was well under way 
and had reached the lower portions of the coal, g was shut off 
and /opened. 

Schwackhofer obtained complete combustion of the sugar- 
carbon and coal, with no formation of black, and no residue of 
coke. 

The gaseous product of the combustion was generally of 
the following composition: 

Carbonic acid 50 to 60 percent; 

. Carbonic oxide 1.2 to 0.3 '' "■ 

Oxygen 10 to 1 5 '' " 

Nitrogen... 30 to 40 " " 

arising principally from the fact that to keep up the normal 
pressure the combustion-chamber was in communication with 
the open air. The cinders were weighed after each test. 

This apparatus should give exact results, but its use is 
complicated. The long duration of the test requires impor- 
tant corrections for influence of external heat, and it needs 
several thermometers. 

W. THOMPSON'S CALORIMETER. 

W. Thompson devised a calorimeter in which the com- 
bustion is started by a jet of oxygen, but the waste gases in- 
stead of passing through a coil bubble up through the water 
of the calorimetric bath. In this apparatus the uncombined 
gases are naturally neglected. (See Fig. ii.) It is an appa- 
ratus, as the inventor says, not intended for scientific re- 
searches, but for handy use of mechanics or '' for popular use." 

rt: is a galvanized-iron gas-holder containing oxygen ; d, a 
stop-cock regulating the flow of water to this holder; d, stop- 
cock for gas; e, rubber tube; /, level-gauge; g, pressure- 
gauge; /i, bell-glass covering the platinum crucible ^, in which 
the coal is burnt ; / is a support of earthenware suspended 



38 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



from the bell-glass by metal springs, and intended to insulate 
the crucible and prevent too quick cooling; /« is a glass jar 
containing 2000 grams (4.4 lbs.) of water, forming the calori- 
metric bath. Water cannot enter the bell h while the cock j 




Fig. II. — W. Thompson Calorimeter. 

is closed, and it is opened only when the pressure in the 
gas-holder is sufficient ; ?2 is a glass jar filled with water and 
surrounding the calorimetric jar, and / is the agitator. 

One gram of fuel is put into the crucible, and on this is 
placed a small cotton wick impregnated with bichromate of 
potash. This is lighted at the instant of putting into the jar, 
and its combustion aided by the oxygen kindles the fuel. 

This is an imperfect apparatus, and will give in most cases 
only unsatisfactory results. Still it is in rather common use 
in the shops of England, where it serves principally as a com- 
parative measure, the errors being considered constant. 



BARRUS S CALORIMETER. 



The Barrus calorimeter is a modification of the one just 
mentioned. While it requires considerable care in using to 
get correct results, yet it is one of the simplest and most in- 
expensive. 



BARRUS'S CALORIMETER. 



39 



As described by Mr. Barrus, " it consists of a glass beaker 
(Fig. 12) 5 inches in diameter and ii inches high, which 



P^ 



can be obtained of most dealers in 
chemical apparatus. The combus- 
tion-chamber is of special form, and 
consists of a glass bell having a 
notched rib around the lower edge 
and a head just above the top, with 
a tube projecting a considerable dis- 
tance above the upper end. The 
bell is 2J- inches inside diameter, 5|- 
inches high, and the tube above is J 
inch inside diameter and extends 
beyond the bell a distance of 9 
inches. The base consists of a cir- 
cular plate of brass 4 inches in diam- 
eter, with three clips fastened on 
the upper side for holding down 
the combustion-chamber. The base 
is perforated, and the under side 
has three pieces of cork attached, 
which serve as feet. To the centre 
of the upper side of the plate is attached a cup for holding 
the platinum crucible in which the coal is burned. To the 
upper end of the bell, beneath the head, a hood is attached 
made of wire gauze, which sefves to intercept the rising 
bubbles of gas and retard their escape from the water. The 
top of the tube is fitted with a cork, and through this is 
inserted a small glass tube which carries the oxygen to the 
lower part of the combustion- chamber. This tube is movable 
up and down, and to some extent sideways, so as to direct 
the current of oxygen to any part of the crucible and to 
adjust it to a proper distance from the burning coal." 

The method of working it can be easily seen from the 
description and cut. In burning very smoky coals he mixes 




Fig. 12. — Barrus Calorim- 
eter, 



40 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



them with a proportion of non-smoking coal of known calo- 
rific value, and when anthracite or coke is burnt he mixes it 
with a small portion of bituminous coal. In Mr. Barrus's 
hands very satisfactory results have been obtained. 



HARTLEY AND JUNKER' S CALORIMETER. 

Hartley's calorimeter is an apparatus of constant pressure 
iind continued combustion. The gas measured by a meter is 
burnt in a Bunsen burner surrounded by a cylindrical copper 




Fig. 13. — Junker Calorimeter. 

vessel filled with water, which is constantly renewed. The 
flow of liquid is such as to avoid much heating and time suf- 
ficient is used to increase the temperature so as to have a good 
thermometric observation. The volume or weight of the water 
is determined at such intervals and the thermometric readings 
taken often enough to obtain an average. 



JUNKER'S CALORIMETER \\ 

Hugo Junker's modification of the apparatus rendered it 
more exact. It has been used for some time in Germany 
and in the United States. It is composed (Fig. 13) of a 
gas-meter a^ preceded by a very sensitive regulator b. On 
leaving the meter the gas. passes to a Bunsen burner c. The 
products of combustion give up their heat to a calorimetric 
tube d^ through which regularly flows a stream of water. The 
temperature of the gases is regulated by means of a thermom- 
eter e. In order to keep the flow of water as regular as pos- 
sible, it flows from the supply-tube g into a small reservoir 
kept at a constant level governed by the tube h. The water 
passes through i to the calorimeter and escapes at k, run-, 
ning into the glass in which it is measured or weighed. The 
graduated tube / is to catch the condensed water from the 
interior of the calorimeter. The thermometer in shows the 
heat of the escaping water, and n that of the water enter- 
ing the calorimeter. 

To calculate the calories generated during the combustion 
proceed as follows : 

Measure the quantity of water which runs through it in 
one minute, take the temperature of the two thermometers, 
and note the flow of gas. The heat of combustion per cubic 
metre of burnt gas is obtained by multiplying the volume of 
water flowing per minute by the difference of the two temper- 
atures and dividing the product by the gas volume burnt per 
minute. 

Thus : 

Volume of water flowing per minute 902.3 cc. 

*' " gas burnt per minute. ..... . 2500.0 cc. 

Temperature at inlet 13. 1° C. 

'' outlet 27.5" C. 



902.3 X [2-]^^ - 13.1^ . ^ 1 • 
Q z= — ^196 calories. 



42 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

The gas tested has a value of 5 196 calories per cubic metre. 

Since the calorie is 3.968 times the B. T. U., and the 

cubic metre is 35.316 times the cubic foot, multiplying 

1 . 1 • , 3.968 

the calories per cubic metre by — =:0. Ii2^c; will give 

35.316 ^ 

B. T. U.'s per cubic foot. 

Multiplying, then, 

5196 X 0.1 1235 = 583.8 B. T. U.'s per cubic foot. 

The above example considered the volume of the .water. 
It is sometimes advisable to consider the weight instead. The 
following example illustrates this: 

Weight of water used during the test. . . , 2000 grams. 

Volume of gas burnt 7-23 litres. 

Temperature at inlet i4-4° C. 

*' outlet 36.5° C. 

Then 

2QQO X (36.5 - 14-4) ^ ^ 1 • K- 

Q = = 6102 calories per cubic metre, 

7.23 ^ 

and 

6102 X 0.1 1235 r= 685.6 B. T. U. per cubic foot. 

Two causes of error may occur. It is not certain that the 
combustion of the gas in the burner is regular; indications by 
gas-meters are not always very sure, the start being capricious. 
But these do not have much weight in its use for industrial 
purposes, for which it is chiefly designed. The results are 
very near those obtained by other methods. Stohmann, whose 
competence in such matters is universally recognized, says 
they give good results. 

Bueb-Dessau, to prove the calorimeter, burnt hydrogen 
prepared by electrical decomposition, and obtained after cor- 
rections for thermometer and barometer 34150 calories per 



LEWIS THOMPSON'S CALORIMETER. 



43 



Icilogram — a difference of 350 calories from the usual number, 
34500, or only 9 thousandths. ■ 

Prof. Jacobus has determined that there is a constant error 
due to neglect of latent heat of moisture in products of com- 
bustion of —2 per cent in the determinations with this appa- 
ratus; otherwise it is very satisfactory. 

LEWIS THOMPSON'S CALORIMETER. 

Lewis Thompson's calorimeter has been used in England 
for some time. It gives only approximate results, but as the 
errors are of the same kind in each case, the results are com- 
parable, and it has been found serviceable in industrial works 
where quick and comparative observations are required. 

The apparatus (Fig. 14) is composed of a glass calorimeter- 
bath H containing water, a copper cylinder E in which the 





Fig. 14. — L. Thompson Calorimeter. 



Fig. 15. — Calorimeter 
IN Action. 



mixture of coal and potassa chlorate is placed, and surmounted 
by the nitrate of lead fuse F. Enclosing this cylinder is a bell 
D, having a tube C carrying a stop-cock. The cock is closed 

before putting it in position in the water. iT is a cleaner for 
the tube C, and y is a thermometer. 



44 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

The fuze is lighted, and the whole quickly put in the jar of 
water. The mixture of combustible and potassium chlorate 
soon ignites and burns, all the gases generated being forced 
out at the bottom of the bell through the perforations, and 
bubble up through the liquid. After the combustion is finished 
the temperature is taken and the heat-units calculated. 

From 8 to lo parts of oxidizing mixture is recommended 
for one of coal; but if the coal is very rich this must be 
increased to 1 1 parts, calculated on the crude coal. With 
pure coal, cinders out, the extreme limits are 1 1 and 14 parts. 
It would probably increase the accuracy of the method, if 
the same quantity of oxidizing mixture was employed, what- 
ever the kind of coal used, and to mix with it inert substances, 
as silica or ground porcelain, in quantity varying with the 
richness of the coal. 

Scheurer-Kestner tested this apparatus very carefully, 
using a great variety of fuels whose heats had been previously 
ascertained by means of Favre and Silbermann's calorimeter. 
He found some 15 per cent deficit in the figures, and after 
correcting by this amount the results varied only a few per 
cent from those actually obtained. In thirty different kinds 
of coal tested the average was 1.8 per cent too low. 

The use of this calorimeter requires some skill. Its imper- 
fect insulation requires prompt reading and rapid combustion. 
Care must be taken to work at temperatures very close to 
that of the room, as the calorimetric bath is not protected. 
The proportions of the mixture used vary, not only with each 
kind of coal, but for each sample, on account of the propor- 
tions of cinders. Fat coals require more oxidizer than lean 
coals, as it is evident an increase in quantity of cinders should 
require a decrease in oxidizer. But in changing the propor- 
tions of oxidizer a certain difference in elevation of tempera- 
'ture is necessarily produced by the heat of solution of the 
salts left after the combustion. These various causes render 
its working rather delicate, and always uncertain. 



CHAPTER V. 
CALORIMETERS WITH CONSTANT VOLUME. 

The results obtained with a calorimeter of constant volume- 
are not exactly the same as those obtained with one of con- 
stant pressure ; but for solid or liquid substances the difference 
is too small to consider, since the volume, as well as that of 
the water produced, is inconsiderable in relation to the volume 
of gas employed. As regards the correction for contraction 
and expansion of the gases, they also are inconsiderable. 

In his Traite de Me'canique Berthelot has shown that 
the heat generated by a reaction between gases at constant 
pressure is equal to the heat of combination at constant 
volume at any temperature whatever, increased by the pre- 
ceding product counting from absolute zero ; and he gives the 
following formula for passing from one system to the other : 

QTp = QT, + o.5424(A^- N') + o.oo2(.Y - N')t, 

QTp being the heat generated by the reaction at constant 
pressure, and at the temperature T counting from ordinary 
zero; QT^, the heat generated by the reaction at same tem- 
perature and constant volume ; N, the number of units of 
molecular volume occupied by the components, these being 
taken according to usage equal to 22.32 litres under normal 
pressure at 0° ; N\ the corresponding number of units of 
molecular volume occupied by the product of the reaction. 

As example, take the combustion of carbonic oxide at 15°. 
Then we have 

CO -[- O == CC generates at constant volume 68 calories.* 

* These numbers refer to molecular weights. 

45 



46 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

To pass from this to the heat given off under constant 
pressure, observe that CO occupies a unit of volume and O a 
half unit. Then 

N = li- 

CO, occupies a unit of volume and 

N' = I. 
Hence N-N'^^.j 

At o° there would be, then, for the difference between the 
heat of combustion at constant pressure and that at constant 
volume, 

+ 0.542 X \— +0.271 calories. 

At + 15° add to this + 0.015, which increases the cor- 
rection then to 0.286. The heat of combustion of carbonic 
oxide at constant pressure and 15° is then + 68.29 calories. 

With a solid or liquid, this volume in relation to those 
of the gases formed may be practically neglected, the same 
as with the water; all reduce then to the contraction and 
expansion of the gases. Thus, for naphthalin, this correc- 
tion does not exceed 8.8 in 9692 calories — leSs than o. i per 
cent. 

In case of solids or liquids with unknown molecular 
weight, as with fuels generally, this difference m^y still be 
approximately calculated, as it is sufficient to know the volume 
of oxygen used in the combustion and that of the gases pro- 
duced. 

The first calorimeter of constant volume in date is that of 
Thomas Andrews, who in 1848 published results obtained 
with a closed calorimeter. The calorimeter was not applicable 
to solids or liquids ; the combustion of the gases was con- 
ducted as in a eudiometer, but he did not take all the 
precautions necessary to be certain of complete combustion. 



ANDREWS' CALORIMETER. 4/ 

^Nevertheless, the results obtained for certain gases are 
remarkable, considering the elementary character of his 
apparatus and working. The combustion of solids, on the 
contrary, gave worthless results. 

The calorimetric bomb of Berthelot and Vielle seems able 
to replace advantageously all the other calorimeters as much 
iDy its convenience as by its certainty of results. 

Since Berthelot and Vielle's original form was published 
many minor changes have been made in the bomb. All the 
modern workers seem to prefer some modification of this form, 
m preference to any of the other and older kinds. There are 
so many points of superiority possessed by the bomb in ease 
and rapidity of working, accuracy, convenience, etc., which 
Jhave caused it to be universally used. 

ANDREWS' CALORIMETER. 

In 1848 Andrews published his labors on the heat of 
combustion of bodies, and notably on that disengaged by 
combustion of different gases. He used a cal- 
orimeter of constant volume, in which the com- 
bustion-chamber was a copper cylinder (Fig. 
16) weighing 170 grams (6 ounces), of 380 <r 
cubic centimetres (about 23^ cubic inches) ca- 
pacity, and capable of resisting the pressure 
exerted by the combustion of the same vol- Fig. 16. 

e \ r ^ /r- TT \ -^i ANDREWS* CaLO- 

ume of olefiant gas (C2H,) with oxygen. rimeter. 

At the upper part, the cylinder had a small conical tube 
closed by means of a perfect-fitting stopper b. A silver wire 
a was fixed in this stopper, and to this was soldered a very 
fine platinum wire for igniting the gases by a galvanic 
current. The mixture of gases was prepared as for eudio- 
metric analysis. 

The combustion-chamber was entirely submerged in a 
glass cylinder filled with water, of which the temperature is 




4^ CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS, 

regulated so as to compensate approximately for the probable 
use, and thus avoid corrections for influence of external air. 
This cylinder was put into another, also of glass. A rotary 
motion imparted to the cylinder aided circulation in the 
liquid during combustion, which usually lasted thirty-five 
seconds. 

Andrews also applied his calorimeter to combustion of 
solids, but judging from the low results he did not have per- 
fect combustion. The results obtained with some of the 
gases, on the contrary, are quite reliable, notwithstanding the 
imperfections of the apparatus. 

CALORIMETRIC BOMB OF BERTHELOT AND VIELLE. 

Of all the calorimeters known to-day, the calorimetric 
bomb of Berthelot is that which offers the most advantages, 
as much from its ease of operation as from the precision of 
its results. Only one operator is needed ; the combustion is 
perfect ; the gaseous products need not be analyzed to deter- 
mine the combustible substance ; no weight save that of the 
substance used is needed ; and it is as applicable to solids and 
liquids as to gases. 

True, its use requires oxygen under high pressure ; but 
this pressure (25 atmospheres) may be readily obtained with a 
compression-pump, which is easily procured ; and at the 
present time oxygen may be bought sufficiently compressed 
for the purpose. Berthelot states that as much as 5 or even 
10 per cent of nitrogen is allowable, but that the latter limit 
must not be exceeded. 

Mahler used compressed oxygen, and obtained good 
results with that bought in the Paris market. This gas is 
furnished in steel tubes and under 120 atmospheres pressure. 
The cylinders contain sufficient gas to make a large number 
of experiments before the pressure falls too low, i.e., below 
25 atmospheres. 



BER THEL OT'S CA LORIME TER. 



49 



Fig. I J shows the bomb adjusted ready to place in the 
calorimeter. Full details of the construction 
will be found in Berthelot and Vielle's treatise, 
Sur la force des metiers explosives^ vol. i, p. 

245- 

Fig. 2 1 shows the arrangement adopted 
by Berthelot to burn solids. The cylinder 
(Fig. 1 8) is lined with platinum, and con- 
structed so as to resist a pressure of 200 to 
300 atmospheres. It is furnished with a 
tight-fitting head (Fig. 17) fastened ex- 
teriorly by a piece of steel (Fig. 19), clamped 
on the external face of the bomb by a screw- 
clamp (Fig. 20), which does not form a part of the apparatus 
as immersed. 

The sealing of the bomb results from the adherence of 
the margin of the head BB (Fig. 21), and the interior of 
the cylinder, and also between the platinum of the head and 
the platinum of the cylinder. Berthelot makes the joint 




Fig. 17. 




Fig. 19 



Fig. 20. 



tight with a smearing of vaseline around the opening, being 
careful not to have a trace on the inside. If no bubbles 
escape on putting it into the calorimetric bath, the joints are 
tight. 

The cover is pierced at the centre with a small hole, in 
which is fitted a tube formed of a hollow screw acting as a 
cock, and itself provided at the upper end with a circular 
lieaa. The electric ignition is produced by a platinum wire 



50 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 




Fig. 21. 



fitting in an opening of the removable conical cover E. This 
is prepared (Fig. 2i) in advance, and is covered with a layer 
of gum lac applied in a strong alcoholic solution. When the 
first coat is dry, a second one is put on and 
dried in a stove. Berthelot says that the 
combination of these two coatings, one elas- 
tic and soft, the other hard and brittle, 
resists very well the enormous pressure on 
the cone. This cone, lightly greased, is put 
into the conical opening in the bomb cover, 
and screwed up tight by means of a nut. It 
is well to protect the base of the cone by a 
film of mica. 

An electric current passed through E 
(Fig. 2t) reddens the spiral of very thin 
iron wire / placed between the platinum 
wires and one of the supports 55 of the cap- 
sule cc containing the substance in. This iron wire soon 
burns and kindles the combustible. 

Fig. 22 gives a general and complete internal view. 
The iron spiral is formed of an iron wire -^-^ millimetre 
(0.004 inch) thick, rolled up on a spindle. The wire may be 
weighed, or by using the same length of wire always have the 
same weight. 

The spiral is attached on one side to the cone, and on the 
other side by means of a platinum wire to the platinum sup- 
porting the fuel, taking care that the iron has no straight por- 
tions. The support of the capsule or platinum-foil is then 
fixed in the cover, by aid of the screw, arranging it so that 
the spiral is directly over the combustible used. The cover 
is put on, turning it gently to make the contact more perfect. 
The nut is tightened and the wire carefully screwed up, 
always using wooden tongs to prevent injuring the bomb. 

The form of the bomb is such as permits filling the calo- 
rimeter with the smallest possible quantity of water — a neces- 



BER THEL OT'S LAL ORIME TER, 



5' 



sary condition that the temperature, and consequently the 
precision, attain a high degree. For solids and also for coal 
Berthelot uses bombs containing 400 to 600 cubic centimetres 
(24 to 37 cubic inches), placed in a calorimeter of 2000 grams 
(4.4 lbs.) of water. 

To determine the heat of combustion of coal, for instance. 




|h[i) iiii l'|H i iii l^nlMiif?iiiliMi(».iliMifniiliiiili'liiliiiiliiiiliiiinililii((lfiili,riif 

Fig. 22. — Berthelot Bomb. 

it must be previously reduced to powder in order to have a 
sample whose cinder is known. As all kinds of coal do not 
burn completely in this state, they are formed into pastilles, "'^ 
which are weighed and burnt. They are put on a platinum 
grating or foil, placed on the support 56" (Fig. 21), over 

*We obtain very resisting pastilles or briquettes from fat coals by 
simple compression in a pastille or suppository mould such as used by 
druggists. With lean coals, or anthracite, the pastilles are too friable and 
burn incompletely. This is easily remedied by mixing with a small 
quantity of silicate of soda solution. Several of them should be made at 
a time, the cinders of some being determined to obtain a mean and the 
others burnt in the bomb. They may contain about i gram of pure coal. 



52 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

which and in contact with it is the iron spiral. At the 
instant of Hghting a sHght noise is made, and soon the ther- 
mometer begins to rise, showing that the combustion is pro- 
ceeding. 

Compressed oxygen may be introduced either by a pump 
drawing the gas from a holder or by using a compressed-gas 
cylinder. In both cases the gas is used without drying, if 
the combustible contains hydrogen in quantity enough to 
saturate the gases formed with water produced by its combus- 
tion. But if, on the contrary, the combustible has little or 
no hydrogen, like wood-charcoal for instance, it is not im- 
material whether the oxygen be dry or not. In this case it 
is well to use the oxygen moist, or to put a little water in the 
bomb on the internal walls. By this means a correction for 
heat of vaporization of water formed by the combustion is 
obviated. 

Oxygen compressed to 120 atmospheres is nearly dry. 
Berthelot observes: **The oxygen is, in short, actually or 
nearly dry, and if it contains aqueous vapor the tension is 
reduced to one fourth or one fifth on account of the change 
in volume of the gas during its passage through the bomb. It 
may be nearly nullified by the cold produced at the instant of 
filling the bomb. This admitted, we shall have to account in 
most combustions for the evaporation of the water produced 
in the bomb; and this is from 2 to 3.5 calories in a bomb of 
-J litre (about 0.6 pint), or 5 to 6 calories in a bomb of 600 to 
700 cubic centimetres (37 to 43 cubic inches). These are 
rather small quantities, it is true ; but while they can be 
neglected in industrial tests, they cannot in rigorously 
scientific investigations. This correction may, however, be 
neutralized by putting into the bomb 4 or 5 cc. of water, 
which should be considered in the calculations. 

When oxygen not previously compressed is used and 
forced in by a pump, Berthelot recommends passing the gas 
through a large red-hot copper tube filled with oxide of the 



BERTHELOT' S CALORIMETER. 53 

same metal, so as to burn any oil which may have been taken 
from the pump. 

Operatio7i. — At the laboratory of the College of France 
the successive operations are as follows : 

1. Light the fire to heat the oxygen red-hot; 

2. While the gas-holder is filling with oxygen, the fuel is 
dried ; 

3. Weigh the fuel; 

4. Place the fuel in the bomb; 

5. Grease the cover slightly; tighten with the screw; 

6. Begin to compress the oxygen by forcing the air out 
with a few strokes of the piston ; pump slowly to prevent 
heating the pump ; 

7. Close the stop-cock of the pump ; break the connection 
with the bomb, extinguish the fire, and replace the bomb on 
its support so as to carry it to the calorimeter room ; 

8. Pour the water into the calorimetric bath. 

The apparatus is allowed to come to equilibrium, and the 
readings of the thermometer taken for five minutes. The 
iron coil is then heated by the electric current from a small 
bichromate battery. It takes fire and kindles the combustible, 
which generally burns without smoke or producing any car- 
bonic oxide, as Berthelot has shown.* 

The water condensed from the combustion contains small 
quantities of nitric acid, showing imperfectly purified gas. This 
may be determined by titration, if accurate results are sought, 
and calculated 0.227 calories per gram of HNOj. The cor- 
rection will be very small. A correction for the iron used 
may be made at the rate of 1.65 calories per gram, this being 
the heat of formation of the magnetic oxide. 

* With very fat coals it sometimes happens after a combustion that the 
platinum shows a black or brown mark, indicating a slight deposit of black 
or tar which has escaped combustion. Occasionally, also, a trace of tar is 
found at the bottom of the bomb. These may be prevented by using a 
grating or perforated plate instead of the foil. This detail must be attended 
10 with a new coax. 



54 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

With substances containing nitrogen and sulphur, such as 
coal, the corrections are more complicated, as a larger quantity 
of nitric acid is formed and the sulphur forms sulphuric acid. 
If exactness is sought, it will not be sufficient to make a volu- 
metric test : the sulphuric acid must be determined separately. 
Generally, however, this estimation may be dispensed with, if 
for technical purposes only. When, on the contrary, ab- 
solutely correct figures are desired, both acids must be con- 
sidered. In the calculation the nitric acid is reckoned as 
0.227 calorie per gram and the sulphuric acid as 1.44 calories 
per gram. 

But these two corrections are really unimportant even 
with coal, as it contains usually only about i per cent of 
nitrogen or sulphur. One per cent of nitrogen represents 4J 
per cent of HNO3, or 10 calories; one per cent of sulphur 
represents 3 per cent of H^SO^ , or 43 calories, — both quite 
small compared with 7000 to 8000 calories. 

Below will be found the details of a complete combustion 
taken from Berthelot's work. 

HEAT OF COMBUSTION OF CARBON. 

The wood charcoal, purified by chlorine at red heat to 
remove all traces of hydrogen (Favre and Silbermann's 
method), is dried at 120° to 140° C. (248" to 284° F.), then 
weighed in a closed tube after cooling in a sulphuric acid 
desiccator. 

0.437 gram carbon; cinders, 0.0028 gram (0.66 per cent); 
real carbon, 0.4342 gram. 

Preliminary Period. 



o minute. 17.360° 

1st " 17-360 

2d " 17.360 



3d minute 17.360° 

4th ** 17.360 



BERT HELOT'S CALORIMETER. 5S 



Combustion. 



5th minute 18.500' 

6th '' 18.782 



7th minute 18.820' 

8th '' 18.818 



9th minute 18.810 

loth '' 18.802 

nth "■ 18.795 



Subsequent Period. 

I2th minute 18.785' 

13th '* 18.775 

14th '' 18.768 



Initial cooling per minute, 

At^ = 0.00°. 
Final cooling per minute, 

A^n = + 0.008°. 
Correction for cooling, 

At = + 0.056°. 
-Variation of temperature, uncorrected, 

18.818° — 17.360° = 1.438°. 
Value of corrected temperature, 

1.438° + 0.056°= 1.484°. 
Value in water of the calorimeter (including oxygen), 

m = 2398.4. 
Weight of acid formed ; 
HNO3 = 5 cc. of ^ normal KHO = 0.0173 gram. 



5^ CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

Total heat observed, q^ = 3.5562 calories. 

Heat of iron coil, 22.4 ) 

" " 0.173 HNo., 3.9 r'=.!:!!!^ " 

Real heat due to the carbon, 3.5299 *' 

3. 5299 

or for one gram, = 8.I2q6 calories, 

0.4342 

or per kilogram, 8129.6 calories, 

or 1487 1. o B. T. U. per pound. 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE CALORIMETRIC BOMB ADAPTED TO 
INDUSTRIAL USE BY MAHLER. 



The calorimetric bomb of Berthelot costs considerably 
more than can be paid by an industrial laboratory, owing to 
its large amount of platinum. Mahler replaced the interior 
platinum of the bomb by an enamel deposited on the steel. 
The description given by him in his paper before the Socie'ti 
d' Encouragement de Paris, in June, 1892, is as follows: 

The apparatus is shown in Fig. 23. It consists essen- 
tially of a steel shell, B, capable of resisting 50 atmospheres 




Fig. 23.— Mahler Calorimeter. 

and 22 per cent elongation. This quality was carefully chosen, 
not only on account of the pressure it must stand, but also as 
it aids the enameling. The metal is very pure, containing but 

57 



53 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

little phosphorus or sulphur. Tensile strength tests are the 
best criterion of quality. 

It has a capacity of 654 cc. (40 cubic inches) at 15° C. It 
is gauged with a balance showing 3-0^0. The total weight 
is about 4 kilograms (8.8 lbs.) with the accessories."^ The 
metal of the walls is 8 millimetres (about 0.3 inch). 

The capacity is greater than Berthelot's, and has the ad- 
vantage of insuring perfect combustion of carbon in all cases, 
due to a certain excess of oxygen, even when the purity of 
this gas as bought is not quite satisfactory. Besides, it is 
designed to study all industrial gases, even those containing- 
a large percentage of inert gas ; hence it must be able to use 
a sufificiently large quantity to generate the required tempera- 
ture. The contraction at the top aids in enameling. 

The shell is nickeled on the outside, while internally it 
has a coating of white enamel, resisting corrosion and oxidiz- 
ing action of the combustion. f It does not, however, offer 
resistance to the heat, being very thin, and it weighs only 
about 20 grams (308 grains). 

It is closed by an iron stopper made tight by a lead washer 
(P, Fig. 33) and clamped down. This carries a conical-seated 
stop-cock, R, of fine nickel — a metal almost unoxidizable. 
An electrode well insulated and reaching the interior by a plat- 
inum wire runs through the stopper. 

Fig. 24 shows most of the details. 

Another platinum wire, also fixed on the cover, supports 
the platinum disk or foil on which the fuel is placed. 

The calorimeter, the non-conducting material, the support 
for the shell in the water, and the agitator differ in numerous 
details from those of Berthelot, and are much cheaper. 



* Slight modifications have been made in the dimensions of the metal of 
the bombs made lately by Golaz. 

f Prof. W. O. Atwater finds that the enamel chips off in time, and that 
after about 300 combustions it requires re-enameling. Hempel for coal 
determinations uses one without any inside enamel. 



MA HLER' S CAL GRIME TER. 



59 



The calorimeter is of thin brass, and is quite large on ac- 
count of the size of the combustion-chamber. It contains 
2200 grams (4.85 lbs.) of water, thus eliminating the causes of 
error due to the loss of a few drops by evaporation.* The 
agitator of Berthelot is supplanted by a very simple and gentle 
cinematic combination called a drill 
movement, and which can be worked 
without fatigue. The source of elec- 
tricity is a Trouve bichromate pile [P, 
Fig. 23) of 10 volts and 2 amperes. 

The oxygen used is that furnished by 
the Compag7iie Conti7tentale d' Oxygene. 
This company supplies oxygen free from 
CO2, but containing from 5 to 10 per 
cent of nitrogen. This means of supply 
simplifies the manipulation ; it also ob- 
viates the introduction of grease, as 
happens with oxygen compressed by a 
pump in the laboratory. f 

The cylinders vary in size, and con- 
tain gas at a pressure of 120 atmospheres. 
The average content is about 1200 litres 
(about 40 cubic feet) compressed. They 
have a uniform top, and hence the copper pipe connecting the 
bomb with the manometer and the cylinder, once adjusted, 
will fit all of them. 

The method of working is very simple. 

Weigh I gram of the substance to be tested in the cap- 
sule. Fasten a small weighed iron wire (English gauge 26 or 
30) to the electrode and to the support of the capsule. Put 
the end in the bomb and fasten in the cover, which should be 
held in a vise. Put the conical stop-cock in connection with 
the oxygen cylinder, and open it carefully so as to allow suffi- 




Fig. 24. 



* The evaporation never exceeds a gram per hour, 
f This gas is also compressedby pumps at the works. 



60 CALORIFIC POWER OF FVELS. 

cient oxygen to pass in for the required pressure. Close the 
cock of the oxygen cyhnder, carefully close the conical cock, 
and break the connection between the bomb and the oxygeni 
cylinder. The substance, especially if coal, must not be toO' 
fine, and the oxygen must flow in very slowly to avoid blow- 
ing any of it from the capsule. 

The bomb thus prepared is placed in the calorimeter, and 
the thermometer and agitator adjusted. Pour in the previously 
weighed water, agitate a few minutes to restore equilibrium of 
temperature, and commence the observations. 

The experimenter notes the temperature minute by minute 
for four or five minutes, and determines the rate of the ther- 
mometer before the combustion. Then he joins the elec- 
trodes, and the combustion begins immediately, almost instan- 
taneously; but the transmission of heat to the calorimeter 
takes some time. 

The temperature is taken one-half minute after kindling, 
then at the end of the minute, then at each minute to the 
time when the thermometer begins to lower regularly. This 
is the maximum. The observations are continued for a few 
minutes more to ascertain the rate of fall of temperature. 

We now have all the elements needed for the calculation, 
and particularly for the single correction necessary to make 
under the circumstances. This is the correction for loss of 
heat before reaching the maximum temperature, which is 
quite small considering the short time and the large mass in- 
volved. 

It is not necessary to use the corrections of Regnault and 
Pfaundler with this apparatus. Newton's law of cooling gives 
sufficiently accurate results, even in rigorous investigations. 
Special experiments made to determine the rate of cooling of 
the water in the calorimeter, when the apparatus was set up as 
usual, showed that the correction may be regarded as follow- 
ing a simple law, but between comparatively large limits, 



MAHLER'S CALORIMETER. 6r 

even under a variation of several hundred grams in amount of 
water used. 
The law* is 

1. The decrease in temperature observed after the maxi- 
mum represents the loss of heat of the calorimeter before the 
maximum and for a certain minute, with the condition that 
the mean temperature of this minute does not differ more than 
one degree from the maximum. 

2. If the temperature considered differs more than one 
degree but less than two degrees from the maximum, the 
number representing the rate of decrease dimminished by 
0.005^ will be the correction. 

The two preceding remarks suffice in all cases with Mah- 
ler's apparatus. The variation of heat in the first half-minute 
after kindling may also be corrected by the same law. 

The agitator must be worked continually during the ex- 
periment, being careful of the thermometer. 

When through, the conical valve is opened and then the 
bomb. Wash the inside with a little distilled water to collect 
the acids formed. The proportion of acids carried away by 
the escaping oxygen at the opening may be neglected. De- 
termine the acids volumetrically. 

When experimenting with substances low in hydrogen and 
incapable of furnishing sufficient water to form nitric acid, it 
is advisable to put a little water in the bomb, or hyponitric 
acid would be formed. 

All the data being obtained, we proceed to the calculation 
of the calorific power Q. 

Let A be the observed difference of temperature ; 
a, the correction for cooling; 
P, the weight of water in the calorimeter; 
P\ the equivalent in water of the bomb and acces- 
sories; 

* It is evident that the rule must be modified for apparatus notablydif- 
ferent from that used bv Mahler. 



62 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS, 

p, the weight of the nitric acid, HNO3; 
/', the weight of the iron ; 
0.23 calorie, the heat of formation of I gram of nitric acid ; 
and 1.6 calories, the heat of combustion of I gram of iron. 
We then have 

e = (j+^)(p+/")-(o.23/+ 1.6/). 

In testing coal in this manner the small amount of sul- 
phuric acid formed will be reckoned as nitric acid without 
serious error, as it will be very small. The heat of the reac- 
tion is 1.44 calories per gram of H^SO^ formed. 

The above details apply to liquids as wejl as solids. Heavy 
liquids, such as the heavy oils, tars, etc., are weighed directly 
into the capsule; but light, easily vaporized liquids must be 
placed in pointed glass, bulbs. These are put into the capsule, 
and just before closing the bomb are broken to allow access 
of the oxygen to the liquid. An almost perfect combustion 
is obtained in operating with a great variety of materials, 
nothing but cinders remaining. 

To determine the calorific power of gases the exact con- 
tent of the bomb must be known. Fill it first with gas. 
Then work the air-pump to reduce the pressure to several 
millimetres of mercury, and then fill the bomb again with gas, 
under atmospheric pressure and at the laboratory temperature. 
The bomb may then be considered full of pure gas. 

The method of working with gases is the same as with 
solids or liquids. The operator must not forget the need of 
preventing too great dilution with oxygen, as then the mix- 
ture will cease to be combustible. With illuminating gas 5 
atmospheres of oxygen is sufificient, and with producer gas 
only one-half atmosphere, as shown by the mercury gauge, is 
needed. 

The gases to be burnt are kept in gas-holders over water 
saturated with gas, or over salt water, according to circum- 



MAHLER'S CALORIMETER. O3 

stances, and are saturated with aqueous vapor when they enter 
the bomb. From the calorific capacity of the different parts 
we obtain that of the whole, the glass and enamel being 
omitted. 

Soft steel 3945 grams. 3945 X 0.1097 = 432.76 

Brass 545 " 545x0.093 = 50.68 

Mercury, plati- 
num, and lead 72 * ^2 X 0.03 = 2.16 



Sum 485.60 grams. 

The coefficient 0.1097 is the one adopted by the College 
of France, from Berthelot and Vielle's experiments, for a steel 
of similar quality. We have given above (page 14) the 
calculations relative to the valuation in water. By direct 
method of mixing water of different temperatures Mahler 
found the equivalent to be 470 and 484, and assumed the 
mean 481. 

By the method of burning a body of known composition 
and heat of combustion he obtained with naphthalin 9688 
calories — within -^-^-^ of that given by Berthelot (9692). 

The equivalent in water may also be obtained by burning i 
gram of known composition and heat of combustion — naph- 
thalin for instance.* We may also, after Berthelot, burn a sub- 
stance of fixed composition at two trials with different weights 
of water in the calorimeter. Two equations are thus formed, 
from which the heat of combustion of the body used is elimi- 
nated, and the heat sought obtained. 

In using naphthalin care must be taken to weigh it only 
after being gently fused in the capsule. It is so light that if 
not agglomerated some would be blown away by the oxygen. 
In practice the tests are made rapidly. The water equivalent 
once determined may be verified by combustion of cane- 

*This practical method has the advantage of automatically eliminating 
causes of error. 



64 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS, 

sugar (C,,H,,0,j), for which Berthelot and Vielle found 3961.7' 
calories. (Use 2 grams for a combustion.) 

Examples of Calculations. 

Mahler gives several types of calculations from his notes, 
so as to show the different circumstances which may occur. 
A. Colza Oil. — Elementary analysis showed — 

Carbon 77.182 per cent. 

Hydrogen 11.711 ** ** 

Oxygen and nitrogen 11. 107 •* *' 



00.000 



Weight taken, i gram. Calorimeter contained 2200 grams 
water. Equivalent in water of bomb, etc., 481 grams. 
Pressure of oxygen, 25 atmospheres. 

The apparatus prepared as above was allowed to rest a 
few minutes to gain equilibrium of temperature. Then com- 
menced noting the temperatures. 

Preliminary Period. 



mmute 10.23 

1 " , ... 10.23 

2 minutes 10.24 

Rate of variation. 



3 mmutes 10.24 

4 ** 10.25 

5 ** 10.25 



10.25 — 10.23 ^ o 

a^ — £ ^ — 0.004°. 

The electrodes are connected and the combustion begins. 
Combustion Period. 



5| minutes 10. 80' 

6 " 12.90 



7 minutes.. 13.79 

8 "■ .. 13.84 maximum.* 



* Prof. Jacobus recommends plotting the temperatures and using, not 
the maximum, but the one at the instant the curve of cooling becomes a 
straight line. The difference is slight, but important in some cases. 



MAHLER'S CALORIMETER. 65 



Period after Maximum. 



9 minutes 13.82° 

10 '' 13,81 

11 '' 13.80 



12 minutes 13-79° 

13 ** 13-78 



Rate of variation after maximum is 

13.84 — 13.78 
a, = -^—^ ^-^ = 0.012°. 

5 

The thermometer observations now stopped. 
The gross variation in temperature was 

13.84- 10.25 = 3-59°- 

The corrections are As follows : 

The system lost during the minutes (7, 8) and (6, 7) a 
quantity of heat corresponding to 2a^. 

2a^ = 0.012 X 2 = 0.024°. 
In the half-minute {si, 6) it lost 

i{at — 0.005) = 0.0035°. 
But during the half-minute (5, si) it gained 



0.004 o 

2^0 = = 0.002 . 



Consequently, the loss for the minutes (5, 6) is 
0.0035 — 0.002 = 0.0015°. 



66 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



So that the system had lost, before reaching the maximum 
temperature, 

0.024 + 0.0015 =: 0.0255, 

which must be added to the 3.59° already found, making the 
variation in temperature 3.615°, neglecting the 4th decimal. 
The quantity of heat observed, then, is 

Q — (2200 + 481)3.615 = 2681 X 3.615 = 9.6918 calories. 

From this number must be subtracted — 

1. The heat of formation of the o. 13 

gram of HNO3 0.13 X 0.23 = 0.0299 

2. The heat of combustion of 0.025 

gram of iron wire 0.025 X 1.6 = 0.04 



Total subtraction 0.0699 

The final result is, then, 

9.6918 — 0.0699 — 9-6219 calories, 
or for I kilogram 9621.9 calories, equivalent to 173 19.4 B.T.U. 

TECHNICAL EXAMINATION OF COAL. 

The coal taken was a sample of Nixon's coal from South 
Wales. 



Preliminary Period. 



minutes, degrees. 

o 15.20 



15.20 
15.20 
15-20 



Co ^ O 



Combustion. 



minutes. degrees. 
3^ 16.60 

4 17.92 

5 18.32 

6 18.34 
maximum 

oxygen pressure 25 
atmospheres 



After Combustion. 



minutes. 

7 
8 

9 
10 
II 



degrees. 
18 32 
18.30 
18.30 
18.30 
18.26 



18.34-18.26 
at — =r 0,016 



MAHLER'S CALORIMETER. 67 

Difference of gross temperature 3. 140° 

Correction (4, 5) (5, 6) 0.016 X 2 0.032 

(4, 3i) 0.005 

" (3. 3i 0.000 

Corrected difference of temperature 3-177° 

or 3.18°. 

Calories. 

Heat disengaged 3.18°. 3.18 X 2.681 = 8.5256 

Iron wire. 0.025. 0.025 X i-^ =0.04 

Nitric acid 0.15. 0.15 X 0.23 =0.0345 

0.0745 

For one gram 8.45 1 1 

or 845 1. 1 for I kilogram, equivalent to 152 12 B. T. U. 

EXAMINATION OF A GAS. 

Illuminating gas was examined under the following con- 
ditions:* 

Barometric pressure 761 mm. (29.6 inches). 

Tension of aqueous vapor 8 " (0.314 inch). 

Temperature of laboratory 18.5° C. (65.3° F.). 

Volume of bomb 654 fee. (39.9 cubic inches). 

** '' ** dry at 0° and 760 mm. 

606 cc. (37 cubic inches). 

The capsule was left in its usual place in the bomb to pre- 
vent specks of iron oxide from dropping on the enamel and 
injuring it. 

■* See Kroeker's calorimeter on page 73. 
f Exactly 653.9 cubic centimetres. 



68 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



Preliminary 
Period. 



minutes, degrees 



.80 
l8.8o 
18.80 
18.80 
18.80 



«o = 0.00 



Combustion. 



minutes, degrees. 
4i 19-50 

5 20.00 

6 20.08 

7 20.81 
maximum 



After Combustion. 



degrees. 
20.07 
20.06 
20.06 
20.055 
20.05 



20.08 — 20.05 
at ^ = 0.006 



Remarks. 



Pressure of oxygen 
5 atmospheres 

grams. 
Nitric acid. . . . 0.06 
Iron wire 0.025 



Gross difference of temperature, A 1.28° 

Correction as usual, a o 015 



Difference, A -\- a ; 1.295° 

Calories. Calories. 

Quantity of heat observed, 1.295° 1.295X2.681= 3-47i89 

Heat of HNO3 formation 0.06 X 0.23 =0.0138 

Heat of iron-wire combustion 0.025X1.6 =0.04 

0.0538 



Heat of combustion of 606 cc. at o and 760 mm 3.41809 

or per cubic metre at 760 mm. 5640, or 633.6 B. T. U. per cubic foot. 

COMBUSTION USING AN AUXILIARY SUBSTANCE. 
Sometimes an unconsumed residue is left while determin- 
ing the heat of combustion of some difificultly burning sub- 
stances, diamond or graphite for instance. In this case a 
combustible auxiliary is used to obtain complete burning of 
the sample. The most convenient to use is naphthalin (CioHg), 
the heat of combustion of which is exactly known, 9692 cal- 
ories. 

Take petroleum coke, which is nearly allied to graphite. 
It is mixed with a little naphthalin which has been previously 
melted at a low heat and then cooled. After cooling the 
weight of the naphthalin is taken. 
The coke analyzed as follows: 

Carbon 97.855 per cent. 

Hydrogen 0.489 '' 

Oxygen 1.196 *' 

Nitrogen 0.260 '' 

Ash 0.200 '' 



100.000 



MAHLER'S CALORIMETER. 
The data obtained are as follows: 



69 



Preliminary 
Period. 



tninutes. degrees. 

22.05 

1 22.05 
5 22.04 



^?o = — 0.002 



Combustion. 



linutes. degrees 
5 
6 



22.60 
24.20 
25.02 
25-13 
25-14 
maximum 



After 
Combustion. 



linutes. degrfees. 
10 25.12 
14 25.05 



0.015 



Remarks. 



grams. 

Napthalin 0.034 

Iron wire 0.025 

Nitric acid 0.080 

Water of calorimeter. 2200. 
Equivalent in water. . 481. 



Difference of temperature 25.14 — 22.04 = 3- 100' 

Correction for minutes (9, 8), (8, 7), (7, 6). . 0.015 X 3 = 0.045 

" " \ minute (5^, 6) = 0.005 

" \ " (5. 5i)---- =ro.ooi 



Corrected temperature difference 3-i5i' 



Then, 

Total heat developed 3.15" 3.15 X 2.681 = 

From this subtract 

Heat due to naphthalin 0.034 X 9692 = 0.3295 

0.025X1-6 =0.04 

0.08 X 0.23 = 0.0184 



iron wire. 



HNO, 



Heat developed by the combustion of the coke, 
or 8057.2 per kilogram, or 14503 B. T. U. 



8.4451 



0.3879 



i.0572 



When the combustible tested contains hydrogen, it must 
be remembered that, while the gas in the bomb is dry at the 
beginning, it is saturated at the close of the experiment. In 
reality, the latent heat of vaporization of the small quantity 
of water necessary to be added is inconsiderable. The mean 
of several tests was 5 in 8500 calories observed, or only 
__!__. Still, when we test gases, which cause less marked 
difference in temperature than solids or liquids, we must allow 
for this heat of vaporization to be exact. 

It may be asked if any allowance will be made for the 
lieat of the electric current at the moment of kindling. The 



70 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

heat developed by a current with intensity / and electro- 
motive force E is 

C= 1, 

4.17 

/ being reckoned in seconds. If t was appreciable, this should 
be considered at least in exact determinations. But, actually, 
t is very small ; the contact is hardly established before the 
iron is burnt and the contact broken.* 

Mahler cites two successive tests made on the same coal 
with his bomb and with the bomb of the College of France^ 
as furnishing proof of the accuracy of his method. 

The following results were obtained : 

Scheurer-Kestner 

at the Mahler. 

College of France. 

Coal (pure) from Bascoup, Belgium ... . 8828 8813 

The calculations may be rendered simpler and the obser- 
vation more rapid, still being exact enough for industrial uses. 
Take the equation 

0. = (J + «)(/'+ p') - (0.23/ + 1.6/), . . (I) 

arranging the terms in order of the corrections 

e, = A{P+ P) + a(P+P) - (0,23/ + 1.6/). (2) 
It is clear that the calculation of the calorimetric operation 

* In exact researches this heat can be easily determined if wished. It 
will be sufficient to measure the electromotive force in volts. Then put 
an amperemeter in the line which connects the bomb and kindle the com- 
bustible as usual. The displacement of the needle shows the intensity of 
the current under the conditions of the test, and also the time during which 

EI 

the current was closed. The formula / will give the quantity of heat 

sought. 



ATWATER' S CA L OR I ME TER. 7 1 

reduces to the determination of a maximum and to one multi- 
plication if we have 

^(P+P') = 0.23/+ 1.6/ (3) 

Now from the tests made we readily see that whatever 
value a may take, it increases with the quantity of heat gen- 
erated in the bomb; it is a Httle greater when the external air 
is warmer than when it is cooler — a fact which may be attrib- 
uted to the influence of evaporation on the cooling of the 
bath.^ 

On the other hand, the nitric acid appears to increase with 
the quantity of heat generated, and tends to offset the cor- 
rection from a. In short, p' is, within certain limits, at the 
control of the observer, same as P' , We consider it then 
possible to arrange once for all so as to have the expression 
(3) sufficiently close for industrial purposes. 

This can be done with Mahler's apparatus. Thus for oil 
of colza the multiplication A{P -\- P') gave 9625 calories, 
which is within -^^-^^^ of the final number obtained after all 
corrections ; with the Nixon's coal we found t :at A{P-\- P') — 
8418 calories, which differed -^^ from the correct number; 
with coal-gas the product 2681 X 1-28 == 3432 calories, while 
the corrected result was 3418, or ^^-^ difference. 

atwater's calorimeter. 

Prof. Atwater has considerably modified the bomb, so 
that it seems to have some advantages for easy working. 
Fig. 25 gives a sectional view of it in the calorimeter. The 
steel used is the same as that used in the Hotchkiss guns, 

* The rapidity of cooling in the apparatus employed by Mahler was, 
according to experiments, between 15° and 20° C. 

~ = o.oos{T- To), 
To being the temperature at which cooling ceases. 



72 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



and having an unusually high tenacity, seems admirably fitted 
for the purpose, A represents the bomb, C the screw-cap, 
B the cover, which is placed on the bomb cylinder and held 
down by the screw-cap. " The cover is provided with a neck 
into which fits a cylindrical screw E^ holding another screw H. 
On the side of the neck is an aperture 6", between the lower 
end of D and the shoulder. In Z^ is a washer of lead, on 
which the lower edge of E fits. By opening or closing the 
screw F the narrow passage from z is opened or closed. The 
opening is used for admitting oxygen at a high pressure 
through a narrow passage to charge the bomb. In B is an 
aperture through which passes the platinum wire H, which is 

separated from the metal of the cover 
by insulating material. Hard vulcan- 
ized rubber serves very well for this 
purpose. Fastened to the lower side 
of the cover is another platinum rod, /, 
between Avhich and H an electrical con- 
nection is made with a very fine iron 
wire. A screw-ring holds the small 
platinum capsule, in which the sub- 
stance to be burned is placed. At KK 
are ball-bearings of hard steel to avoid 
friction in screwing the cap down." 

" The large cylinders N and O are 
made of indurated fibre, and covered 
with plates of vulcanized rubber. A 
stirrer serves for equalizing the temper- 
ature of the different portions of water 
after the combustion is completed." "^ 
The thermometer used is by Fuest 
of Berlin, graduated to yio degree, and can be read with a 
magnifying-glass to yoVo degree. 

* Prof. W. O. Atwater, in Bulletin No. 21, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 
1895, pages 124 and 126. 




Fig. 25. — Atwater Bomb. 



KROEKER'S CALORIMETER. 



73 



The apparatus has been used with success in making the 
very numerous determinations made by Atwater on the heats 
of combustion of food-products and other allied organic sub- 
stances. 



kroeker's calorimeter. 

Kroeker has recently modified the bomb, making two in- 
let channels instead of one. By this means he has a current 
of oxygen gas passing in at one opening and waste gases 
passing out at the other. It can thus be used for the same 
purpose that a Junker calorimeter is used, and it is claimed 
with just as satisfactory results. 

The cylinder (Fig. 26) is bored out of a piece of Martin 
steel, and has a closely-fitting screw-plug for cover, the depth 
of the screw joint being 25 mm. The walls 
of the cylinder are 10 mm. thick; external 
diameter, 72 mm. ; internal diameter, 52 
mm. ; height, 120 mm. ; contents, 200 cc. 
It has four small legs on the under side, 
which support it and keep it entirely sur- 
rounded by the water of the bath. The 
entire inside surface is enameled, or prefer- 
ably platinized. The fuel, in the form of 
compressed cylinders weighing one gram, 
is put into the carrier, ignited as usual, 
and the combustion gases collected and 
examined. 

He also has a method of heating the ^ 
calorimeter bomb in an oil-bath so as to 
expel all the water of combustion and hy- p-^^^ 26.— Kroeker 
dration. He thus obtains data for cor- Calorimeter. 
rections due to the usual method of determining the water, 
i.e., considering the water as condensed. 




74 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



HEMPEL S CALORIMETER. 

Hempel's calorimeter is used to a considerable extent in 
Germany and introduces some new features. 

It consists (Fig. 26^) of an iron tube into which a bottom 
about 15 mm. thick and a top about 30 mm. thick are screwed 
and fastened with hard solder. The chamber capacity is 2 50 cc. 






^g^Jhlg 


\ 


Dud G 


jl 




1 



Fig. 26a. Fig. 26^. 

Hempel Calorimeter. 



and will resist a pressure of 25 atmospheres. It is closed by a 
head-piece (Fig. 26U). This has a screw- valve a, an insulated 
wire d^ and a perforated cup e supported by the platinum 
wires yy". The depression g contains mercury and serves for 
battery contact. The wire d has a conical enlargement and 
is wedged into the opening in the head-piece, i is a lead 
washer around the valve-rod a. 

The coal is crushed to powder and then formed into small 
cylinders by means of a screw-press. This is put in the cup 



WALTHER-HEMPEL BOMB, 



74^ 



and ignited by the wires//. The oxygen is supplied under 
a pressure, usually about 1 5 atmospheres. - 

The apparatus can be made ready in an hour, and the test 
generally lasts fifteen minutes. 



WALTHER-HEMPEL BOMB. 



This consists of a small cylinder of 33 cc. capacity (Fig. 2^)^ 
iDOred out of white cast iron and enameled inside. The walls 
are 2 millimetres thick, and it is strong enough to resist eight 
times the pressure generally used. The cover 
is fastened on by means of a screw-clamp, 
and through it passes the slanting opening a, 
having the electric wire-carrier insulated by 
a caoutchouc sheath. To the wire at the end 
of this sheath is attached a platinum wire for 
kindling the combustible. On the opposite 
side of the cover is the oxygen tube d. The 
platinum wire c is attached to the under side 
of the cover, and supports the combustible- 
carrier and its little fire-clay cylinder e. 

The fuel is made into small cylinders by 
compression, put into the fire-clay cylinder, 
and ignited by the electric spark. The 
products of combustion are collected and 
weighed or measured : the water partly in tlie 
bomb and partly by means of a calcium chlo- 
ride tube ; the nitric and sulphuric acids are 
determined by titration with yi-g- normal alkali, 
and afterwards separated if deemed necessary, 
to be capable of use the same as a large one. 




Fig. 27. 

Walther- 

Hempel Bomd 

It is claimed 



A full descrip- 
tion of it is given in the Berliner Bericht for January, 1897. 



74^ CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

WITZ'S CALORIMETER. 

Aim^ Witz has modified the calorimetric bomb so as to 
permit its use for gases. The eudiometric calorimeter, as he 
calls it (Fig. 2'jb), consists of a steel cylinder A, 3.54 inches 
high, 2.34 inches inside diameter, and 0.08 inch thick, contain- 
ing 15.55 cubic inches. It has two covers, C, C\ fastened to the 
cylinder, hermetically sealing it by means of an oiled paper 
gasket. The upper one carries the spark-exciter e. The other 
cover has a valve D, opening into a chamber about i inch 
diameter. By means of the internal curved surface of this 
cover the cylinder can be completely emptied of gas and filled 
with mercury. 

To use the bomb it is filled with mercury and the mixture 
of air and combustible gas introduced by means of a conical 
glass gas-holder. The gas escaping from this forces out its 
bulk of mercury, and after the proper readings it is placed in a 
calorimeter vessel containing about a litre of water and the gas 
exploded. 

Professor Witz has obtained very good results, and has 
used it in many hundred determinations. 

ICE-CALORIMETERS. 

Considerable interest is attached to the ice-calorimeten 
It was the first kind used, and although its use in heat deter- 
minations has been displaced by the more recent forms, yet 
there seems to be a tendency on the part of some physicists 
to return to it. This is especially the case with Schulla 
and Wartha and von Than some years ago, and Louguinine 
at the present time. 

Its determinations are based on the difference of volume 
between ice and ice-water, i gram of ice has a volume of 
1.09082 cc. (Bunsen), while i gram of water at the same tem- 
perature has a volume of i. 00012 cc. By the melting of ice 
using 79.4 gram-calories, a reduction of 0.0907 cc. in vol- 



ICE CALORIMETERS. 



74c 



ume occurs. Hence I calorie is equivalent to a reduction 
of ^1^ cc. 

The first use of the ice-calorimeter was by Vilke, a 
Swedish physicist. Following him came Lavoisier and La 
Place, who, at the end of the last century, carried on their 
classic researches on heat. Hermann, in 1834, improved their 
apparatus, and based his determinations on the change in 
volume of the ice and water instead of on the weight of the 
melted ice. 





Fig. 27a. — Hermann 
Ice-calorimeter. 



Fig. 27^.— Witz' 
Calorimeter. 



HERMANNS CALORIMETER. 

Hermann's apparatus (Fig. 2'jd) consisted of a glass cylin- 
der A^ having a brass screw at the top. On this was fastened 
a brass cover, sealing it hermetically. This cover carried a 
thin brass tube, B^ running into the cylinder. A graduated 
glass tube C also passed into the cylinder, the divisions being 
calibrated. By means of the plunger in tube D the water- 



7Ad 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



level of A is adjusted at the commencement of the test. The 
whole apparatus is enclosed in a protected box to prevent 
radiation. 

When used, the cylinders A and B contain ice and water; 
E, containing the thermometer, is filled with the substance to 
be tested. The proper temperature is given E, and it is 
quickly put into place and allowed to cool to zero. 

By the action of the heat of E part of the ice is melted, 
thereby changing the volume of the contents of A and the 
level of the water in C. 

herschel's calorimeter. 

Herschel devised a calorimeter in 1847 to use in his work 
on specific heat. It depended on the expansion of the mix- 
ture of ice and water. 



bunsen's calorimeter. 
This was an improvement of those of his predecessors. It 

consisted of a glass-tube, a (Fig. 27^), fused into a cylindrical 
bulb, b, to which is attached an open bent 
tube, c. At the upper end of this tube is 
attached a rim top of iron, d. The inner 
tube from ^ to yw and the containing bulb 
from /? to A are filled with air-free water. 
The lower part of the apparatus is filled to 
the iron rim with mercury containing no air. 
The water in tube a is frozen and the whole 
apparatus placed in a box of snow. A gradu- 
/j ated glass tube s is passed through a cork into c. 
To use this calorimeter, the substance to 
be tested is heated and dropped into a^ the 
open end being immediately closed. The 
change in volume was transmitted and meas- 
ured by the mercury. The tube a weighed 

40 to 50 grams, and about 0.35 gram was melted, causing the 

mercury to move some 400 divisions. 




Fig. 27^. — BuNSEN 
Ice-calorimeter. 



SCHULLA AND WARTHA CALORIMETER. 



74^ 



SCHULLA AND WARTHA CALORIMETER. 

This was described in 1877 i^ Wiedemann's Annalen. 
They placed the calorimeter (Fig. 2jd) in a metal vessel y, 
containing distilled water and having from 2 to 3 cm. of ice 




Fig. 27^. — ScHULLA and Wartha Ice-calorimeter. 



on the sides and bottom. On putting the calorimeter into 
this vessel the surface of the water was covered with ice 
spicules which soon melted in the distilled water. The 
whole was hermetically sealed with a metal cover having two 
openings for the calorimeter-tube and the tube leading to 
the measuring-apparatus. The whole was then enclosed 
in a wooden box, so that it was surrounded by a thick 
layer of ice. They weighed the mercury instead of measur- 
ing it. 

In determining the heat of combustion of hydrogen they 
xised purified electrolytic gas and burnt it in a special burner. 
The results were very satisfactory. 



7Af 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



Von than S CALORIMETER. 

Von Than made an improvement based on the fact 
that the melting-point of ice sinks under pressure. The 
point determined when the ice is under pressure from a 
column of mercury is too low, and a correction must be 
made. 

His apparatus (Fig. 2'je) was 19.67 inches high, the inner 




Fig 27.?. — Von Than's Ice-calorimeter. 



vessel, <2, having a capacity of IJ.42 cubic inches, and was 
closed with a caoutchouc-lined brass ring. This was fastened 
to another vessel called the '' thermostat," which was simpl}^ 
a Bunsen calorimeter filled with a 2^ solution of common 
salt. This is contained in a wooden box filled with ice, 
having a stop-cock at the bottom to draw off the melted 
water. By this means the apparatus was always ready 
for use. 



D IE TERICI 'S CAL OR! ME TER. 



7Ag 



With this calorimeter the pressure can be changed so that 
only melting due to actual heat is possible. In order to 
do this the side tube of the '^ thermostat " is connected by 
a rubber tube to a vessel, /", which can be raised or lowered 
and the pressure measured. 

In determining the heat of combustion of hydrogen he 
worked under constant volume. His burner was made of a 
glass tube and nearly filled the inner chamber, a. The 
products of combustion passed out through phosphoric 
anhydride. By weighing this he determined the quantity 
of water generated. His results were ± 0.04^ of the correct 
amount. 

DIETERICl'S CALORIMETER. 

Dieterici's calorimeter (Fig. 27 f) was quite large. The 
inner vessel was nearly 8 inches long. The tube, S, through 




Fig. 27/. — Dieterici's Ice-calorimeter. 



which the mercury flowed has a ground joint with a mer- 
cury seal. K is a wooden box in two parts, filled with 
ice, containing a porcelain vessel, P, filled with distillel 



74^^ CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

water, which is frozen on the walls. In this is placed 
the calorimeter, suspended on a fulcrum by means of the 
tube 5. 

He preferred a glass or porcelain vessel to a metal one, as 
undergoing no change from oxidation. 



CHAPTER VII. 
SOLID FUELS. 

COAL. 

Among the first careful tests ever made, to determine the 
heat value of different kinds of coal, are those made in 1843 ^^^ 
1844 by Prof. W. R. Johnson for the U. S. Navy. He 
analyzed and tested all the kinds obtained from the United 
States and England, which were then in use by the navy. 
At the time they were made the calorimetric determinations 
were not considered as of the importance they are now, 
and his tests were limited to determining the evaporative 
power of the coals. Mr. W. Kent reviewed them in the 
Engineering and Mining Journal, 1892, and showed that up to 
the time of the experiments nothing comparable with them 
had been attempted, and that in many respects they compare 
favorably with work done to-day. 

In 1857 Morin and Tresca made numerous determina- 
tions of the calorific power of coal and wood, and in 1853 
they published a work on " Fuels and their Calorific Power,*' 
in which they make many recommendations for more accurate 
work. They wrote : '* It would be extremely important if 
experiments with the calorimeter could be made on most of 
the fuels, by methods similar to those used by Favre and Sil- 
bermann." 

In 1868 such experiments were made by Scheurer-Kest- 
ner, and continued by him later with the aid of Meunier- 
Dollfus. They based their calculations on pure coal, i.e., with 
moisture and ash deducted. This method, which has been 

75 



76 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

followed by many others, seems very logical, as it facilitates 
comparison of different fuels by reducing them to the same 
basis. Enormous errors due to comparison of values not 
comparable are thus obviated. Coal having 5 per cent im- 
purity has been compared with coal having only i per cent, 
no account being made for the difference, and of course very 
erroneous and misleading deductions obtained. 

It is a simple task for the engineer or the workman even, to 
determine approximately the proportions of moisture and ash 
as given on the grate. Knowing these proportions and the 
heat of combustion of the pure coal, they can render a state- 
ment of the practical working. If, on the contrary, the ex- 
perimenter is limited in such way that he neglects the com- 
position of the coal, it is impossible to make a conjecture as 
to its intrinsic or comparative value; still less can he judge of 
it as a steam generator. 

In 1879 Bunte made some experiments at Munich, using a 
special apparatus devised by him for the occasion, which 
was part calorimeter and part boiler. The tests were pub- 
lished in Dingler's PolytecJiniscJies Joiiriial. Some of the 
results are included in the tables of this book. 

Since then numerous tests have be.^n made on nearlyall 
the known coals. A collection of all available ones from 
which the desired data could be obtained will be found far- 
ther on. 

The question as to the actual evaporative effect of each 
coal can be settled only by actual tests made on the boiler 
intended for use, as the same coal will give slightly different 
results with different kinds of boilers ; also, and in a more 
marked degree, with different methods of firing and handling. 
The results in the tables cannot be taken, then, as absolute 
for all boilers under all circumstances, but they can be 
depended on for comparison of the different fuels with the 
same boiler and under proper conditions. 

The manner in which a coal acts under heat in a closed 



SOLID FUELS. 



77 



Aressel is a most important indication, taken in connection 
with its elementary composition. Gruner gave his opinion 
that the real value of a coal could be deterniined better from 
its proximate than from the ultimate composition. Speaking 
of the Loire coal, he says : 

'' The proximate analysis, which consists in distilling coal 
in a retort and incinerating the residue, allows direct valu- 
ation of the agglomerating power as well as the nature and 
proportion of the ash. Further, it is easy to show, especially 
ivith the aid of the work of Scheurer-Kestner and Meunier- 
DoUfus, that the calorific power varies with the proportion of 
fixed carbon left by distillation. This is true at least for all 
coal properly so called, but not always true for anthracite 
and lignite." "^ 

Gruner formed the following table based on the quantity 
and nature of the coke furnished and the calorific power. He 
held, from the results of S.-K. and M.-D., that if the heat 
A^alue of a coal increases with the proportion of fixed carbon 



Classes or Types 

of Coal 

properly so called. 



^. Dry coals with ) 
long flame, f 

2. Fat coals with 1 

long flame (gas V 
coals), ) 

3. Fat coals, prop-] 

erly so called I 
(" blacksmith '' f 
coals), J 

-4. Fat coals with j 
short flamey 
(coking coals), ) 



5. Lean coals or 
anthracite, 



Per Cent 

Coke to 

Pure Coal 



55 to 66 
60 to 68 

68 to 74 
74 to 82 
82 to 90 



Per Cent 

of 

Volatile 

Matter 

in 

Pure Coal. 



45 to 40 



40 to 32 



32 to 36 



18 to 



Nature and 

Appearance 

of Coke. 



( Powdery or | 

-I slightly V 
( coked. \ 
f Completely 1 
I agglomer- | 
\ ated, often- )■ 
I er caked, | 
l.but porous. J 

( Caked and ) 
-I more or less V 
( puffy. ) 

j Coked, I 
\ compact. ) 

r Slightly 1 

) coked, I 

I oftener j 

[ powdery. J 



CalorificPower, 
Actual. 
Calories. 



8000 to 8500 
8500 to 8800 

8800 to 9300 
9300 to 9600 
9200 to 9500 



Industrial 

CalorificPower. 

Water at 0° 

Vaporized at 

112° per Kilo of 

Pure Coal 

Burnt, 

in Kilograms. 



6.7 to 7.5 
7.6 to 8.3 

8.4 to 9.2 
9.2 to 10 
9.0 to 9.5 



* Annales des Mines, 1878, vol. iv. 



y^ CALORII'lC POWER Of FUELS. 

or coke formed, this increase is produced gradually by cutting- 
off the lean coals and dividing the fat coals into three classes 
- — gas, forge, and coking. 

Bearing on the advisability of having proximate analyses, 
as well as ultimate analyses of coal, is the question recently 
brought up by Mr. Kent, regarding the ratio of hydrogen and 
carbon in coal. In discussing the results of Lord and Haas' 
determinations of Ohio and Pennsylvania coals, he thought he 
had discovered the ratio, that the fixed carbon is nearly equal 
to the total carbon minus five times the available hydrogen in 
bituminous coals, and minus three times the hydrogen in 
semi-bituminous ones. He gave a table showing results 
which support the hypothesis. 

LIGNITE. 

From an industrial standpoint lignite is of considerable 
importance. It occurs in most countries, and is used in a 
great many for domestic and manufacturing purposes. 

As a fuel it is inferior to coal, being less distantly 
removed from woody fibre, and hence contains more hydro- 
gen and, usually, considerable water. Most of the latter, 
however, dries out on exposure to the air. In some cases 
as much as 40 or 50 per cent of water is found in the 
freshly mined lignite, of which at times 20 per cent remains 
when air-dried. This greatly affects its value as fuel ; still 
it is used in many of the Western States, and also in 
Europe. In some European localities, when thoroughly 
dried and compressed into blocks, especially in Italy and 
Austria, it is used as fuel for producing gas and for evapo- 
rating, with good results. In Austria it is burnt without 
any preparation, except drying in the air for heating salt- 
pans. 

The amount of ash varies exceedingly, being in some 
cases as low as 0.9 per cent, and in others as high as 58 per 



SOLID FUELS. 79 

cent. It even varies in the same locality and in the same 
bed. In burning lignite there is considerable loss in the waste 
gases on account of the large quantity of air introduced, and 
also from the moisture carried off from the fuel, 

Brix published the following results with dried lignite : 

Water Evap- Per cent 
orated. Ash. 

Lignite of Aussig, Bohemia 5.8 pounds 15.0 

" Perleberg, " 5.6 '' 6.0 

"■ " Goldfuchs n. Frankfort... 5.5 *' 9.1 

■ ** '' Rauen 5.4 '' 6.3 

Bunte used two kinds of lignite in boiler-tests, and gives, 
the following results : 

Neusattel. Chodan. 

Calories in steam 42.8 49.2 

" ''gases 19.6 21.0 

*' " aqueous vapor 9.2 8.7 

*' '' ash 9.0 6.1 

'' unaccounted for 19.4 15.0 

The grate used was a step grate (Treppen-Rost). 

The lignite used on the railways in Italy contained 15 
per cent of water, and gave a yield of heat equal to one half 
its weight of coal. 

Analogous to the lignites are certain shales or fossils 
carrying bitumen. They are sometimes termed boghead 
camiel, biUuninotis schist, etc. They are distilled in some 
localities for oil, but are not much used as fuel. 

Bunte determined the heat of combustion of a sample 
from Australia, and analyzed one from Scotland. 

Carbon. 
Boghead shale, Australia. 83.17 
Scotch Boghead 81.54 



ydrogen. 


O + N. 


Calories. 


10.04 


6.79 


9134 


I 1.62 


6.84 





^O CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

Scotch Boghead generally contains i8 to 24 per cent of 
ash. From its analysis as above, its heat of combustion 
should be near that of the other one given. 

PEAT. 

Peat is formed by the agglomeration of vegetable debris, 
and retains a large amount of water, which will not separate 
without heat. Its composition varies but little from that of 
wood, the principal difference being less oxygen and more 
carbon. 

The composition may be represented by — 

Carbon 60 

Hydrogen 6 

Oxygen and nitrogen 34 

100 
The heat of combustion is lower than that of coal or 
lignite, as might be expected. The quantity of hydrogen 
exceeds that necessary to form water with the oxygen. 

It is usually dried before using, and when dry becomes 
quite porous. It carries, however, in this state some 10 to 
15 per cent of water, which can be expelled only by artificial 
means. Large quantities of it are converted into charcoal in 
special kilns, and, where the large amount of ash is no objec- 
tion, it makes a good fuel. It cannot be used for metallurgical, 
purposes on account of its friability. From 30 to 40 per 
cent of its weight is left in the charcoal as carbon, but at the 
same time the ash increases to 15 to 25 per cent, and even 
more. This consists principally of phosphates and sulphates, 
with very little carbonates ; hence it is not as apt to clinker 
as other fuel ashes. 

Brix obtained with peat an evaporative power of 5. 11 
pounds of water. The peat used was from Flatow, and 
contained 10.7 percent of ash. Another, from Buchfeld-Neu- 
langen, contained 1.2 per cent of ash, and gave 5.12 pounds 



SOLID FUELS. 51 

evaporated. Noury, using a special grate, obtained from the 
Alsace peats 4 to 5 pounds evaporation (ashes deducted). 

Bunte analyzed the gases produced by the combustion of 
peat on the hearth of a salt-pan, and found, carbonic acid 13, 
oxygen 6.4, nitrogen 80.6. 

Karsten says that 2\ pounds of peat are equal to one of 
coal. In some experiments made at St. Petersburg a fircf 
grate of 32 square feet and 696 square feet of boiler heating 
surface was used. The peat was compact, hand-moulded into 
4-inch balls, and dried till moisture did not exceed 14 per cent. 
4.26 pounds of coal were evaporated for i of peat. 

Crookes and Rohrig, in their " Metallurgy," say: *'One 
pound of dry turf will evaporate 6 pounds of water. Now in 
I pound of turf, as usually found, there are f pound of dry 
turf and \ pound of water. The f pound can evaporate 4J. 
pounds of water; but out of this it must first evaporate the ^ 
pound of water contained in its mass, and hence the water 
boiled away by such turf reduces to 4^ pounds. The yield 
is here reduced 30 per cent, a proportion which makes all the 
difference between a good fuel and one almost unfit for use. 
When turf is dried in the air under cover it still retains -^-^ of 
its weight of water, which reduces its calorific power 12 per 
cent; i pound of such turf evaporates 5^ pounds of water." 

COKE. 

Coke usually met with is from three sources : from gasr 
coal, and made in gas-retorts; from gas or ordinary bituminous 
coal, and made in special ovens; from petroleum, and made 
by carrying the distillation of the residuum to a red heat. 

Coke from gas-works is usually softer and more porous 
than the other kinds, burns more readily, but does not give 
as intense a heat. It has been used considerably for domestic 
heating, and in factories where a high heat is not needed 
but where a smokeless fuel is desirable. The oven coke is 
usually in large columnar masses of a close texture and quite 



82 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



hard. It has a dead gray-black color and is not susceptible 
of polish. It is principally used in furnaces requiring a 
blast, although limited quantities of it have been used in 
domestic heating, for which purpose it must be broken up 
much finer than its usual size. Petroleum coke is generally 
in large irregular lumps, perforated with cavities of greater or 
less size, the interior of which is usually quite smooth and 
shining. Its color is blacker than that of gas or oven coke, 
and its hardness intermediate. It is used principally for mak- 
ing electric carbons, although considerable quantities are used 
for fuel. 

With the exception of gas-coke very little use is made of 
this fuel for steaming, the fire being too intense locally, and 
hence very apt to burn out the boiler directly over it. In all 
cases plenty of air is needed to keep up the combustion, which 
is also a drawback for steaming purposes. For metallurgical 
furnaces it is different. Here it is almost the ideal fuel, giv- 
ing an intense reducing heat at just the part of the furnace 
where most needed. It has been used in iron furnaces for 
years, and is still the favorite fuel. It is superior to anthracite, 
as it has no tendency to splinter and crack with the heat, and 
bears its burden very well. Of course this does not apply to 
ordinary gas-coke, which crushes easily. 

Coke is essentially carbon, and the mineral portions of the 
coal from which it is made. It contains small quantities of 
hydrogen and nitrogen, as may be seen from the tables. The 
percentage of these, however, is very low, so that the cal- 
culated and observed heat-units are usually within the limits 
of error, as is shown in the following table : 



Name. 


C. 


H. 


N. 


Loss. 


Calories 
observed. 


Calories 
calculated. 


Authority. 


Saarbruck 

Petroleum coke 
Graphite 


98.04 
98.05 
98.98 


0.73 
0.50 
0.02 


0.25 


1.23 
1.20 


8200 
8057 
7901 


8229 

8151 
8054 


Bunte 

Mahler 

Berthelot 



SOLID FUELS. 



83 



WOOD CHARCOAL. 

Wood charcoal always contains quantities of hydrocarbons 
which have resisted the action of heat. That called forest 
charcoal, made by burning in heaps, is the most charged with 
them ; that obtained from distillation of wood in retorts con- 
tains less. 

The heat of combustion is very variable. According to 
Berthier* commercial wood charcoal contains 10 per cent of 
volatile matters and 2 per cent of ash (carbon 80 to 90, hy- 
drogen 1.5-4). 

Pure wood charcoal was first tested calorimetrically by 
Favre and Silbermann, and since then by several experi- 
menters. To obtain it pure it was calcined strongly and 
treated with chlorine to remove all traces of hydrogen. In 
this state wood-charcoal produces under constant pressure 
8080 calories, F. & S., or 8100 S.-K. & M.-D. ; with con- 
stant volume Berthelot and Petit obtained 8137 calories. 

Several years ago Berthier pointed out that half-burnt 
charcoal, charbon roux or Rothkohle, was superior in combus^ 
tible content to that perfectly burnt. Sauvage has confirmed 
this, and gives the following results : 



100 lbs. of wood y 
charred for S 


3 hours. 


4 hours. 


5 hours. 


5^ hours. 


6| hours. 


Mound 
Charcoal. 


Weighed 


65.4 lbs. 


53-0 lbs. 


47-0 lbs. 


41.5 lbs. 


39.1 lbs. 


17.2 lbs. 


loocu. ft. measured 


86 cu. ft. 


76 CU. ft. 


58 cu. ft. 


55 cu. ft. 


52 CU. ft. 


33 cu. ft. 


and 


I cubic foot wood contained of combustible matter 908 parts. 


I " '' 3 hours' heating *' '' " 883 *' 


J .. '^ 4 - - - - - 904 '' 


I " "5 " " " " " 1133 " 


I *< '' 51. " ** *' '' «' 1091 *' 


I '' " 61 '' '* " '* '' 1136 *' 


I *' ** charcoal '^ '' " '' 1069 '' 



* Traite des essais par la voie seche. vol. i, p. 286. 



84 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS, 

So that the amount of combustible matter does not increase 
after 5 hours' heating, and a continuance of the heat diminishes 
it. 

' The principal use of charcoal is in iron furnaces, where it 
has been used for years, and produces the highest grades of 
iron, being free from sulphur and phosphorus. A small 
amount is used in private dwellings and hotels for heating 
and cooking. For boiler heating it has been used only 
experimentally. 

Scheurer-Kestner and Meunier-Dollfus experimented with 
it in boiler-heating and found very little combustible gas in 
the products. Beech charcoal was used, and an evaporative 
effect of 7.62 pounds of water was obtained. The waste 
gases contained : 

Carbonic acid 1 1 . 16 per cent. 

Carbonic oxide O- 37 ' * 

Oxygen 8.72 '' 

Nitrogen , 79-75 " 



100.00 



Brix, using wood and peat charcoal, obtained the follow- 
ing results: 

Wood charcoal 7.55 pounds evaporated. 

Peat charcoal 6.85 

Schwackhofer burnt charcoal from hard and soft wood in 
his calorimeter and obtained (constant volume) 7140 calories 
for the soft charcoal and 7071 calories for the hard. The 
charcoal in both cases was the ordinary unpurified charcoal as 
sold. 

WOOD. 

Wood consists of a compact tissue more or less hard, 
formed of cellulose and a so-called incrusting substance. 






SOLID FUELS. 8$ 

Wood contains, besides, small quantities of mineral matter and 
.hygroscopic water varying from 15 to 30 per cent, according 
to dryness. Air-dried, it contains about 15 per cent of water» 
which it gives up easily on exposure to a heat of 100° C. 

The composition of wood may be represented by the 

following: 

Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Ash. Water. 

Wood dried at 100°.... .. 49.5 6.0 43.5 i.o 0.0 

'' '' in the air.... 29.6 4.8 34.8 0.8 29.0 

Regarding wood from its ultimate composition, we may 
consider it as a hydrate of carbon, that is, as carbon united to 
water, the proportion of hydrogen and oxygen being nearly 
the same as in water. But regarded from its proximate com- 
position, it is entirely different. What has been said of soft 
coal can be repeated for wood ; that, those having a similar 
ultimate composition behave differently in distillation in a 
closed retort and produce very different proportions of carbon 
(as charcoal) ; hydrocarbons, liquid or gaseous ; acid products^ 
resin, and tar. It was supposed that the heat of combustion 
differed also, and this has been verified by experiments. 

Berthelot and Vielle determined the heat of combustion of 
cellulose, and found 680 calories for the molecular weight of 
wood, or about 4200 calories per kilogram. 

Hard wood gives less heat than soft wood. According to 
Gottlieb's experiments, pine-wood has a heat value of 5000 
calories, while oak gave only 4620 calories. Mahler's exper- 
iments confirm a difference in favor of pine, but in less pro- 
jportion. 

Two determinations made by Mahler are (cinders and water 

deducted) : 

Fir. Oak. 

Carbon... 51.08 50.43 

Hydrogen.... ,. 6.12 5.88 

Oxygen with trace of nitrogen. . .. 42.90 43-69 

100.00 100.00 

Heat of combustion 4828 4689 



.B6 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS, 



Gottlieb obtained the following numbers, using a calo- 
■fimeter of constant pressure, in which he burnt 2 grams of 
wood in the space of two or three minutes. The composition 
of the gas produced was not determined ; he was satisfied 
that he had perfect combustion, and his figures do not appear 
very far from the truth. For cellulose he obtained 4155 
calories. 



Name. 



Oak.. 

Ash.. 
Elm.. 
Beech 
Birch. 
Fir... 
Pine. 



c. 


H. 


N. 


0. 


Ash. 


Calories. 


50.16 


6.02 


0.09 


43-36 


0-37 


4620 


49.18 


6.27 


0.07 


43-91 


0-57 


4711 


48.99 


6.20 


0.06 


44-25 


0.50 


4728 


49.06 


6. II 


0.09 


44-17 


0.57 


4774 


48.88 


6.06 


O.IO 


44-67 


0.29 


4771 


50.36 


5.92 


0.05 


43-39 


0.28 


5035 


50.31 


6.20 


0.04 


43-08 


0.37 


5085 



8316 
8480 
8510 

8591 
8586 

9063 

9153 



Gottlieb's results are 69 calories less than Mahler's for oak 
and 207 more for fir. 

In burning wood for steaming the fire is easily controlled ; 
combustion is more complete; the products of combustion 
contain only very small quantities of unburnt ^ases; and the 
ashes are generally free from carbon. The countries using 
wood for this purpose are growing less in number yearly, on 
account of improvement in transportation and the discovery 
of new coal seams ; petroleum oils for fuel have also become 
more common, especially in Russia, the United States, and 
Canada. 

Morin and Tresca, in their tests, found that one pound 
of wood was equivalent to 0.368 pound of coal. Scheurer- 
Kestner's experiments in 1871 show results more favorable 
for wood. The wood used was Vosges fir, which had been 
piled under cover for half a year. A cubic foot weighed 
19.76 lbs. It was burnt in the same boiler used in his 
previous experiments, with the result that i pound of wood 
evaporated 4.4 pounds of water. The ratio was 0.490, or 
nearly one half that of Ronchamp coal. 



SOLID FUELS. 



8; 



Brix made a number of experiments in using wood for 
heating, and found that dry pine gave the best results — 5 
pounds per pound of fuel. Elm gave 4.6 pounds; birch, 
4.6; oak, 4.56; ash, 4.63; and beech, 4.47. 

Wood should be dry as possible, as otherwise it has to 
furnish heat to vaporize, not only the water formed from its 
hydrogen, but also that already existing as moisture. We 
have seen that this loss with coal is considerable, it is still 
greater with wood. Suppose the wood to be ordinary air-dried, 
containing 20 per cent of water. If this wood, when per- 
fectly dry, could evaporate 5 pounds of water, it now has 
only |- of that power, or power to evaporate 4 pounds; but it 
already carries \ of its weight of water, which must be vapor- 
ized. Hence the available power is 4 pounds less \ pound = 
3| pounds, or "jo per cent of its dry value. Hence the 
economy of using only dried, and even artificially dried, wood. 
RELATIVE VALUE OF VARIOUS WOODS. 



Wood. 



Hickory, shell bark, 
Oak, chestnut 

" white 

Ash, white ~ 

Dogwood 

Oak, black 

" red 

Beech, white 

Walnut, black 

Maple, hard (sugar) 

Cedar, red 

Magnolia 

Maple, soft 

Pine, yellow 

Sycamore 

Butternut 

Pine, New Jersey. . ■ 

" pitch 

" white 

Poplar, Lombardy.. 

Chestnut 

Poplar, yellow 



>> 


•a 


11 


pecific 
Gravity of 
Charcoal. 


ounds of 
Charcoal 
in a 
Bushel. 


m 


fU 


0-. 


(75 


Cl, 


1. 000 


4469 


26.22 


0.625 


32.89 


O.8S5 


3955 


22.75 


0.481 


25. 3^ 


0.885 


3821 


21.62 


0.401 


21.10 


0.772 


3450 


25.74 


0.447 


28.78 


0.815 


3643 


21.00 


0.550 


29.94 


0.728 


3254 


23.80 


0.387 


20.36 


0.728 


3254 


22.43 


0.400 


21.05 


0.724 


3236 


19.62 


0.518 


27.26 


0.681 


3044 


22.56 


0.418 


22.00 


0.644 


2878 


21.43 


0.431 


22.68 


0.565 


2525 


24.72 


0.238 


12.52 


0.605 


2704 


21.59 


0.406 


21.36 


0.597 


2668 


20.04 


0.370 


19.47 


0.551 


2463 


23.73 


0.333 


17-52 


0.535 


2391 


23.60 


0.274 


19.68 


0.567 


2534 


20.79 


0.237 


12.47 


0.478 


2137 


24.88 


0.385 


20.26 


0.426 


1904 


26.76 


0.298 


15. 68 


0.418 


1868 


24.35 


0.293 


15.42 


0.397 


1774 


25.00 


0.245 


12.85 


0.552 


2333 


25.29 


0.379 


19.74 


0.563 


2516 


21.81 


0.383 


20.15 



> JJt3 






I. 00 

0.86 
0.81 
0.77 

0.75 
0.71 

0.69 
0.65 



65 
60 
56 
56 

54 
54 
52 
51 

48 

43 
42 
40 
52 
0.52 



CHAPTER VIII. 

LIQUID FUELS. 

PETROLEUM— SHALE OILS— GAS OIL. 

Of the many oils capable of use as fuel, only those of min- 
eral origin are used, the others being too costly and possess^ 
ing no advantage. 

The mineral oils comprehend the liquid hydrocarbons 
extracted from bituminous schist or coal and its congeners by^ 
distillation, as well as the oils which exist already formed in 
the earth, and called by the special name oi petroleum. 

While the former are seldom employed in heating, petro- 
leum has become an important fuel in the countries which 
produce it. Its special qualities, light weight, and low price 
per calorie compared with other fuels insure a great future. 
The knowledge of its heat of combustion has become, then, of 
considerable interest. 

Its ultimate percentage composition varies within rather 
close limits, yet it is of a very complex proximate composi- 
tion. The industry of refining crude petroleum extracts from 
it some 50 per cent of refined oil for use in lamps, and hav- j 

ing a density of 45° to 46° Beaume, boiling-point 170° C. \ 

(328° F.); 10 per cent of naphtha with a lower density and * 

boiling-point; and 20 per cent of paraffin oil of a higher den- 
sity and boiling-point. 

Crude petroleum contains a large number of hydrocarbons. 
of the general formula C^R2n+2, and running from CH^ to 
CijHg^, with many isometric modifications. The industrial 
treatment modifies it profoundly. Hydrocarbons containing 

88 



LIQUID FUELS. 89 

95 per cent of carbon have been found in the products of 
distillation.^ 

The vast quantities of petroleum possessed by the United 
States, Russia, and other countries, and its enormous heat 
value, early attracted the attention of engineers. Since then 
it has been found in greater or less quantities in every quarter 
of the globe, and is now being produced and used by the 
thousand tons. 

Probably the largest quantity and the most prolific wells 
are in Russia, on or near the Caspian Sea. Only a small 
portion of the territory has yet been opened, but the yield 
amounts to several million barrels annually, and some of the 
wells have produced several thousand barrels daily. 

The amount produced in the United States is greater than 
that of any other country, as the demand for the oil has 
forced the producers to constantly increase their facilities, 
and in addition the oil is of a quality better suited to manu- 
facture of the various grades. 

Canada, Roumania, Burmah, Australia, Peru, India, Java, 
and other localities have produced smaller quantities. New 
and large fields are being discovered now, and probably we 
have hardly yet entered on its field of use for heating pur- 
poses. 

Among the first to use liquid fuel, and the first to bring 
its use to a state of perfection, must be mentioned the Rus- 
sians. The large quantity of oil produced at such fabulously 
low prices, and the high price of coal, led them early to its use 
under boilers, both stationary and movable. For years they 
have used it exclusively in their locomotives and in many 
marine engines. At first the crude oil was used, but after- 
wards astatki, or residuum from the first distillation. Special 
burners were invented in large numbers, and now its use is a 
settled fact and increasing. 



* Wurtz, Dictionnaire de Chimie, Supplement. 



90 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



In other countries the same great incentive did not exist, 
and the development was slower. In the United States the 
large demand for illuminating and lubricating oils consumed 
almost the entire output; and it must be remembered that 
American oil is more easily manufactured into such products 
than the Russian article. 

In England the large accumulation of shale oil conse- 
quent on the discovery of the yield of paraffin in American 
oil, induced them to use some as fuel. But this state of 
affairs is now over and the shale oil is used but little for 
heating. 

Of all the fuels possible, liquid fuels offer the superior ad- 
vantages of high calorific power and small bulk. By actual 
test 1 60 gallons of oil has done as much work in water evap- 
oration as 3 tons of coal. 

The composition of petroleum may be deduced from the 
following analyses : 

Composition and Value of Petroleum. 



Russian crude light. . 
" " heavy 
" refuse 

Pennsylvania crude . 

West Virginia crude. 

•Canada crude 

Ohio crude 

Galicia crude 

Java crude 



c 


omposition 




Carbon. 


Hydro- 
gen. 


Oxygen. 


86.3 


13.6 


O.I 


86.5 


12.3 


I.I 


87.1 


II. 7 


1.2 


84.9 


13-7 


1.4 


86.6 


12.9 


0.5 


84-3 


13-4 


2.3 


80.2 


17. 1 


2.7 


85.3 


12.6 


2.1 


87.1 


12.0 


0.9 



Heating 
Power, 
B. T. U. 



22,628 
19,440 
19,260 
19,224 
21,240 
20,410 
21,600 
18,416 
19.496 



It will be seen that, pound for pound, its value as a fuel 
should be greater than that of coal, and actual test shows 
:such to be the case. 

Some experiments made at the Hecla Engineering Works, 
Preston, England, and lasting two days, used a marine boiler. 



LIQUID FUELS. 9 1 



fc> 



The first day natural draft was used, the second a Kortin 
blower. The oil was blast-furnace oil from Sheffield, and 
contained : 

Per" cent. 

Carbon 83.54 

Hydrogen lO- 59 

Oxygen S-94 

Sulphur ,. 0.09 

100.16 

By Thompson's calorimeter its value was 16080 B. T. U. 

Equivalent to water at 2 12 °F 16.66 pounds. 

The results were: First day, 14.97 lbs. ; second day, 14.2 £ 
lbs., — a yield of 89.87 and 85.25 per cent of the theoret- 
ical. 

A series of tests made at South Lambeth with a Cornisb. 
boiler showed 20.8 lbs. evaporation; average of several days,, 
19.5 lbs. The same boiler with the best Aberdeen eoall 
yielded 6.5 lbs., — an advantage of 3 to i in favor of the 
oil. 

Mr. Urquhart, in reporting his tests with locomotives irt 
1884, says : 

' * The former (astatki) has a theoretical evaporative power of 
16.2 lbs. of water per pound of fuel, and the latter (anthracite) 
of 12.2 lbs. at an effective pressure of 8 atmospheres, or 12a 
lbs. per square inch ; hence petroleum has, weight for weighty 
33 per cent higher evaporative value than anthracite. Now,, 
in locomotive practice, a mean evaporation of from 7 to> 
']\ lbs. of water per pound of anthracite is about what is gener^ 
ally obtained, thus giving about 60 per cent of efficiency,, 
while 40 per cent of heating power is unavoidably lost. But 
with petroleum an evaporation of 12.25 lbs. is practically ob- 

12.25 . "" 

tained, giving — ^ — = 75 per cent efficiency. Thus, in the 

first place, petroleum is theoretically 33 per cent superior 



9^ a CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS, 

to anthracite in evaporative power; and, secondly, its useful 

effect is 15 per cent greater, being 75 per cent instead of 60 

per cent ; while, thirdly, weight for weight, the practical 

evaporative value of petroleum must be reckoned as at least 

12.25 - 7-5Q . ,, 12.25-7.00 
from -— 3= 61 per cent to j-^ = 75 per 

cent higher than that of anthracite." 

Add to the above advantages the fact that no ashes are 
produced, no coal to be handled, no smoke, no dust, none of 
the usual unpleasant accompaniments of ordinary coal-burn- 
ing practice, and an idea can be had of the benefits not to be 
measured by actual percentages, etc. 

The first calorimetric experiments were published by 
Ste. -Claire Deville in 1868 or 1869, using a large calorimeter 
especially constructed for the work. Mahler used the bomb. 
The liquids were burnt in the bomb under nearly the same 
conditions as solids, when they had no appreciable vapor 
tension. When they had considerable vapor tension (light 
oils, for instance) Berthelot enclosed them in a closed vessel, 
the bottom being platinum and the top formed by a pellicle 
of gun-cotton. Others have made determinations by nearly 
the same methods, and a list of those available will be found 
on pages 251, 252, and 253. 

For burning liquid fuel the best burner is that which 
atomizes or sprays the fuel. By thus forming a fine mist 
an approximation to the theoretical fuel, gas, is obtained. 
Several methods are in use for this purpose. By some the 
oils are vaporized by heat ; but this is applicable only to light 
oils, which are not much used. The favorite method is by 
having the burner so constructed that the oil is forced out in 
a spray and at the same time mixed with the air necessary for 
its combustion. By this means a solid sheet of flame is pro- 
duced, and may be made of any length desired ; in some cases 
lengths of 100 feet have been reached. 

When using the fuel oil commonly used in the United 



LIQUID FUELS. Ql^ 

States air sprayers are sufficient, as this oil is a distilled 
product and contains none of the very heavy solid portions 
of the crude oil. In Russia and in Canada, however, the 
case is different, as in these countries the fuel oil is the 
residuum from the distillation and contains all the heavy and 
none of the light oils. In this case steam is used as an atom- 
izing agent, and it acts in virtue of its heat as well as its force. 

The various methods depending on the distillation and 
decomposition at high temperatures are not considered here, 
as the products formed are gases and will be considered as 
belonging to Chapter IX. 

In actual practice results have been and are being ob- 
tained which agree with and at times exceed the predicted ones. 
Many tests have been published showing an efficiency of 85 
to 90 per cent of the theoretical evaporative power, and an 
evaporation of from 19 to 25 lbs. per pound of fuel has 
been frequently obtained. Carefully conducted tests have 
reached figures much in excess of these. Admiral Selwyn in 
1884, at London, wdth a Cornish boiler having a fire-brick 
combustion-chamber built inside the flue, obtained at different 
times an evaporation of 46, 29, 24, 33, 23, 29, 33, 37, 29, 35, 
and 46 lbs. of water per pound of fuel. 

The products of combustion in the following table show- 
how complete the combustion was and how small an excess 
of air was needed. 

CO, 14.19 18.08 

CO 5.20 0.34 

0.78 0.34 

Hydrocarbons. . . 1.30 None. 

H Not determined. None. 

N 78.53 81.24 

To have the best results, the burner must be so regulated 
as to have a flame bordering on, but not quite, smoky. Thus 



gic 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS, 



sufficient and not too much air is obtained. The quantity of 
steam needed to atomize the oil at Moscow is 4 per cent of 
the water evaporated. 

Since then numerous similar results have been reached. 

Actual tests made on locomotives of the Grazi and Tsar^ 
itzin line, in Russia, show for one year: 

Eight-wheeled Engines with Coal. 



No. of Cars to Train. 


Distance Run by 
Locomotives. 


Coal burnt per Mile. 


Cost. 


37-51 


511,995 m. 


81.43 lbs. 


22.6 C. 



With Petroleum Residuum. 



No. of Cars to Train. 


'Distance Run by 
Locomotives. 


Oil Burnt per Mile. 


Cost. 


38.08 


868,712 m. 


45.83 lbs. 


13.0 C. 



No. of Cars to Train. 


Distance Run uy 
Locomotives. 


Coal Burnt per Mile. 


Cost. 


26.32 


1,341,681 m. 


57.25 lbs. 


15.6 c. 



With Petroleum Residuum. 



No. of Cars to Train. 


^t^oc-omo^iTes'^ Oil Burnt per Mile. 


Cost. 


25.45 


1,487,333 m. 


32.23 lbs. 


9.0 c. 



Besides use for heating boilers, liquid fuel has been used 
with good results in puddling-furnaces, glass-works, smelting- 
furnaces, brick-making, lime-burning, and in almost every 
place where coal would be used. In some cases where fine 
adjustment of temperatures has been needed it has been a 
strong competitor to gas itself. 



LIQUID FUELS. ^id 

Many of the results obtained are far above the theoreti- 
cal quantities based on the usual calorific values of carbon, 
hydrogen, etc. To explain this it must be remembered that 
the value usually given to carbon is its value as a solid^ 
whereas when we vaporize oils we approach or actually reach 
the gaseous state, and should therefore have greater values. 

The calorific value of carbon solid is 8137 calories (charcoal) 
and of carbon vapor 11,328 calories (see page 73), showing aa 
increase of 39 per cent in carbon value. With a sample of oil 
containing 86. 6C, 12. 9H, 0.5O, the two values would be 
11,475 and 14,759 calories (20,655 and 26,566 B. T. U.). 

Again, we do not know the actual state of combination 
existing among the atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 
That they do not exist as in the combinations obtained by 
distillation is known, and many unavailing attempts have 
been made to solve the problem. The presence of steam in 
some of the burners complicates the question still further, as 
there is no doubt but that a rearrangement of some of the 
atoms occurs and new compounds are formed. 

That this is the case is easily shown by the difference in. 
the quantity of gas produced by the decomposition of oil 
with and without steam. In the former case only 150 to 200 
cubic feet are produced from a gallon, while in the latter as 
high as 1000 cubic feet or more. 

Oils other than mineral may be, and at exceptional times 
are, used. Their calorific power is high, as may be seen from 
Table i. Their use, however, is so infrequent that special 
mention of this is not necessary here. 



CHAPTER IX. 
GASEOUS FUELS. 

The heat of combustion of gaseous combustibles has been 
determined for a great many compounds, definite and pure. 
That of the industrial gases has been determined by different 
operators and in different ways, with more or less happy 
results. Its determination is often one of the greatest com- 
mercial interest, since it is used in domestic heating as well 
as in industrial appliances, where it is necessary to obtain 
definite, regular working. It serves also to furnish motive 
power to gas-engines, in which the heat of combustion is not 
without importance. Finally, it is well to know the heat 
produced in air or water-gas apparatus, if we wish to reach 
the best condition for their production and use. 

For heating steam-boilers gas has given good results and 
a very high evaporative effect. It is easily regulated, and 
thus any required heat can be produced by simply turning a 
valve. No smoke is generated, no soot or deposit of any 
kind produced in the flues, and no ashes to take out of the 
ash-pit. The fireplace needs repairing but seldom, and 
the boiler is heated evenly and regularly, there being no 
danger of burning out in strongly heated spots, as no such 
spots exist. 

In metallurgical furnaces, gas possesses a decided advan- 
tage in its long, clean, easily managed, intense flame, and this 
advantage has been long recognized. A flame of 25 feet or 
more in length is easily produced, and it is practically uniform 
for its whole extent. Part of the heat usually lost up the 
chimney can be utilized to heat the air-supply, and no more is 
supplied than just enough for perfect combustion. 

Using gas as fuel enables the metallurgist to use poor 

92 



GASEOUS FUELS. 93 

grades of coal, and all variations in quality may be eliminated, 
a uniform product being had by storing the gas in a holder, or 
by making proper arrangement of different generators so that 
an average will be obtained. In several cases where hand-fed 
coal fires have been tried against fires burning gas from the 
same coal, better results have been obtained, due to the possi- 
bility of more closely adjusted regulation. The tests made 
at Brieg may be cited. Here each boiler had 141.25 square 
feet of heating-surface and steam-pressure 6 to 7 atmospheres. 
No. I boiler was hand-fired ; No. 2 was gas-fired. The 
evaporation in pounds per pound of fuel was : 

No. 1 8.34 8.74 8.28 4.02 2.569 2.764 

No. 2 9.86 9.73 10.07 5-44- 3.251 3.158 

Increase... 18^ 12^ 20^ 35^ 25^ 14^ 



HEAT OF COMBUSTION OF GASES FROM ANALYSIS. 

When the chemical composition of a gas is known exactly, 
its heat of combustion can be correctly calculated ; but \x\ 
absence of a correct analysis, the calorimeter must be used. 

Knowing the proximate composition of a combustible 
gas, that is, the proportion of chemically defined components 
as well as their heats of combustion, it is sufficient to add the 
numbers obtained for each constituent gas. Take, for 
example, the analysis of illuminating gas of Manchester as 
given by Bunsen: 

Hydrogen 45-58 

Marsh gas (CHJ 34.90 

Carbonic oxide...., 6.64 

Ethylene (C,H,)r 4.08 

Butylene (C,H3) 2.38 " i 

Sulphydric acid , 0.29 

Nitrogen ,.,.. 2.46 

Carbonic acid 3.67 

100.00 



94 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

The calculation is as follows: 



Components, 


No.of Litres per 
Cubic Metre. 


Weigfhtper Cubic 
Metre at 0° and 
70° mm. 
Grams. 


Heat of 

Combustion per 

Cubic Metre. 


Calculated 

Calories. 


HvHrocpn 


455.8 
369 

40.8 

23.8 

66.4 
2.9 

cubic metre. 


89.61 
715.58 
1251.94 
2503.88 
1251.50 
2551.99 


3066 

9340 

14980 

29042 

3057 
1 1400 


1395 

3169 

611 

690 

201 

33 

6099 


Marsh gas, CH4 

defiant gas, C2H4 

Butylene, C4H8 

CartDonic oxide 

Sulphydric acid, H2S... 

Total calories per 



City of Manchester gas, as analyzed by Bunsen, gives, 
then, with complete combustion, 6099 calories per cubic 
metre (685 B. T. U. per cubic foot). 

If, however, only the actual ultimate composition of the 
gas is known or the total percentage of carbon, hydrogen, 
oxygen and nitrogen, then the calculated result will differ from 
the experimental one. This is because the heat units of the 
elements added together do not make those of the compound, 
as the heat of combination of the different constituent gases 
is not allowed for. If this factor is known, then it can be 
used as a correction and the correct heat determined. 

This heat of combination of the elements to form the 
component gases will be seen in comparing the calculated and 
the actual heat of combustion of the following gases : 



Gases. 



Marsh gas. . 
defiant gas. 
Acetylene. . 
Benzene . . . . 



Formulae. 


Carbon. 


Hydro- 
gen. 


Calculated 
Heat. 


Actual 
He^t. 


CH4 
C2H4 
C2H2 
CeHe 


75. 
85.7 
92.3 
92.3 


25. 
14.3 

7-7 
7.7 


14685 
I1859 
IOTI4 
IOII4 


13343 
12182 
12142 
12410 



Differ- 
ence. 



+ 1342 

— 323 

— 202S 

— 2296 



It will also be seen, that although two gases may have the 
same percentage composition of the elements, yet the heat of 
combustion may be different owing to the action of the various 
physical forces at work in molecular condensation, etc. 



GASEOUS FUELS. 9$ 



COAL GAS. 



The heat of combustion of illuminating gas obtained froni 
the distillation of coal in closed retorts is very variable. It 
depends not only on the nature of the fuel, but also on the 
rapidity of the distillation and the heat by which it is accom' 
plished. The heat of combustion varies from 5200 to 630(i 
calories per cubic metre. It cannot be represented by any- 
average number. 

According to Witz, at the same gas-works and with th6 
same fuel, yields may occur from 4719 to 5425 calories. 
According to Bueb-Dessau, the illuminating gas of the same 
city during the same day will sometimes vary 20 per cent. 
Dr. Birchmore reports the same result from his examinations 
of the gas of Brooklyn, N. Y. 

We are not certain that the composition assigned to coal 
gas by analysis corresponds always to the gas as obtained by 
distillation ; in Europe, especially, a portion of the heavy 
hydrocarbons is taken out for sale separately, and the deficiency 
supplied by cheaper oils. 

From several experiments which he made, Bueb-Dessau^ 
thought that the heat of combustion of illuminating gas was 
directly proportional to the candle power; but in addition to 
this being opposed to the theory of heat, the experiments of 
Aguitton show the contrary. He concluded from his deter- 
minations that each illuminating gas of different candle power 
has a definite heat of combustion which corresponds to the 
intensity of the light. His experiments were carried on with 
more than a hundred samples, rich and poor, the former kind 
from cannel coal, the latter from the end of the run carried to 
an extreme. He represents by the following formula the 

* Bueb-Dessau cites the following among others: 

Candle-power. Heat-value. 

Gas of Dessau 14- 4400 calories 

Gas of Bremen 21.9 5977 

Gas from cannel coal 26.0 6559 



96 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

relation between candle power and heat of combustion of a 
gas: 

c — iy^ 352.6 + 2280, 

in which c represents the heat of combustion and i the candle 
power. The formula seems to be applicable only between 
limits at which it has been verified — from 5 to 15 candles. 
Aguitton's determinations were made with the calorimetric 
bomb. 

The following table gives a rhum^ of his observations : 

^ ,, „ Heat of Combustion 

Candle Power. p^^ ^^^.^^ ^^^^^^ 

5 ^ 4043 

6 4395 

7 4748 

8 5101 

9 5453 

10 5 806 

II 6158 

12 65 II 

13 6864 

14 72 16 

15 7569 

7c5q — 4043 

^-^— ^ — 352.6, coefficient adopted. 

The three samples of illuminating gas, analyzed and burnt 
in the bomb by Mahler and given in the table below, call for 
the following observations: Gas from Niddrie cannel coal, the 
most calorific per cubic metre is the least calorific per kilo- 
gram, because the density is greater than that of the other 
two. The richest in hydrogen by volume (Lavillette) is the 
poorest in calorific power per cubic metre, while the poorest 
in hydrogen by weight is the richest in calories per cubic 
metre. These are due to the low density of hydrogen, which 



I 



GASEOUS FUELS. 



97 



is less calorific by volume than the other hydrocarbons occur- 
ring in illuminating gas. 







Analysis by Weight. 


Heat of Combustion 






-a 




v 




s 
1) 






Name. 




>> 


c 





<! 


2^ 
:^3 




i 

u 

be 














- 3 








>, 


c 


bfi 


c 


c 


Fc^ 


-e-a 






c 




•a 


.s 







c3§ 


M 




a. 


n u 













i^ 




Q 


u 


E 


U 


u 





A, 


Oh 


Niddrle cannel. . 


0.6367 


43-33 


13-50 


16.84 


9.26 


14.96 


6365 


7735 


Commentry coal. 


. 4046 


43-74 


21.46 


24.96 


7.08 


5-75 


5834 


1 1 TOO 


Lavillette gas. . . 


0.4033 


42.25 


21.34 


21.23 


6.83 


8.33 


5602 


10764 



A cubic metre of hydrogen develops 3091 calories in 
burning; a cubic metre of marsh gas develops 10038 calories; 
a cubic metre of olefiant gas, 15250 calories. 

GAS OF GASOGENES. 

The gasogenes, instead of transforming the fuel into car- 
bonic acid and water in a single combustion, produce this 
change in two distinct burnings, the first being to make a 
combustible gas and the second to burn this gas with air. 

In the first furnace, the coal, for example, is burnt in such 
a manner by feeding with an insufficient supply of air that a 
gaseous mixture is produced, containing principally carbonic 
oxide, besides nitrogen from the air. As the combustion has 
been well or poorly managed, it contains a less or greater 
quantity of carbonic acid, the production of which is avoided 
as much as possible. This is done by giving to the fuel only 
just enough air to form carbonic oxide, and not enough to 
form carbonic acid, even partially, and by making the bed of 
fuel quite deep. 

The heat produced by this combustion is not used, and 
consequently an important part of the calories of the coal is 
lost. Gasogene gas is then lower in calories, and inferior to 
coal gas, as commonly made by distillation. 



9o CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

One kilogram of carbon burnt to carbonic oxide disen- 
gages 2489 calories, while i kilogram of carbon burnt to car- 
bonic acid generates 8137 calories. There is lost, then, in 
burning carbon to carbonic oxide in a gasogene about 30 per 
cent of the available calories. 

At first eight this method of working seems irrational, but 
for obtaining high temperatures there are practical advantages, 
whose importance far exceeds the loss of heat in the gaso- 
gene. It permits much more elevated temperatures, and the 
recovery of a large portion of the heat, which in direct sys- 
tems of heating in high temperature furnaces passes to the 
chimney as complete loss. There is actually an economy in 
the ordinary metallurgical methods even with this loss. 

By means of gasogenes, we produce three kinds of gaseous 
fuel : the gas called producer or air gas, formed by the incom- 
plete combustion of the fuel, with production of a mixed gas 
containing carbonic oxide and hydrogen compounds ; the gas 
called water gas, from the decomposition of water by carbon at a 
high temperature, with production of carbonic oxide, hydrogen, 
and hydrogen compounds; and the gas called mixed gas, 
from the mixture of the two preceding ones by a process 
which combines the production of the two gases in the same 
furnace. 

PRODUCER OR AIR GAS. 

We have said that air gas results from incomplete com- 
bustion, and that its formation causes a loss of one third of 
the calories resulting from the complete combustion of the 
fuel. These gases contain, naturally, the nitrogen of the air 
used, to which must be added that of the air necessary to 
change the carbonic oxide and the hydrogen to carbonic acid 
and water. 

The heat of combustion and the composition determined 
by different experimenters varies considerably, showing that 
they did not always work with average samples. 



GASEOUS FUELS. 99 

The proportion of nitrogen in these gases reaches $6 to 
60 per cent; that of carbonic oxide, 21 to 32 percent; that of 
■of hydrogen, from traces to 17 per cent. The theoretical 
calculation for the combustion of carbon in air to a gas con- 
taining only carbonic oxide and nitrogen gives for the first 
34.7 and for the second 65.3 per cent. 

By adopting for the composition of air the round numbers 
79 and 21, and for the weight of oxygen 1.430 grams per 
litre, for carbon the atomic weight of 12, and for oxygen 16, 

12 : 16 = 1000 grams : 1333 grams. 

A kilogram of carbon needs, then, i^ kilograms of oxygen. 

A litre of oxygen weighing 1.430 grams, 1333 grams would 

occupy 932 litres. These 932 Htres will give with carbon a 

double volume, or 1864 litres carbonic oxide. Multiplying 

, 932 litres by the coefficient 4.77 (see Table XIV), we obtain 

^ the volume of the air corresponding, or 4445 litres. The 

J gases of combustion will be composed then of these 4445 

litres of air and the 932 litres of increase in volume, or 5377 

litres for i kilogram of carbon. The 4445 litres of air will 

contain (at 79 per cent) 3513 litres of nitrogen, or 65.3 per 

cent."^ 

The calculation is more complicated when we have fuel 
containing hydrogen, as one portion of the oxygen disappears 
by its combination with the hydrogen to form water. Take 
for example, a coal containing 90 per cent of carbon, 5 per 
cent of hydrogen, and 5 per cent of oxygen. Suppose i 
kilogram of this coal, under theoretical conditions, burnt in a 
gasogene, i.e., with perfect transformation of the carbon into 
carbonic oxide and no residues. This coal contains 900 
grams carbon, 50 grams hydrogen, 50 grams oxygen. 900 

* One pound of carbon requires 1.333 lbs. of oxygen; i cubic foot of 
oxygen weighs 0.08926 lb. ; 1.333 lbs. measure 14.93 cu. ft. These would 
give 29.86of CO. 14.93 X 4-77 = 71.216, and 71.216 -f 14.93 = 86.146, volume 
of gases of combustion. These contain 56.26 cu. ft. of nitrogen. 



100 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

grams carbon produce 2100 grams carbonic oxide, requiring 
1200 grams oxygen. i2po grams oxygen occupy 839 litres. 
50 grams hydrogen produce 450 grams water, and require 
400 grams oxygen. These 400 grams oxygen occupy 279 
litres. But the coal itself contains 50 grams oxygen, occupy- 
ing 35 litres. 

We have, then, 839 + 279 — 35 = 1083 htres of oxygen 
required, and to calculate the amount of air needed multiply 
by 4.77. This gives 5163 litres of air needed for the incom- 
plete combustion of i kilogram of carbon. These 5163 litres 
contain 4080 litres of nitrogen. 

To obtain the total volume of gases produced by the 
incomplete combustion, we may add to the volume of the air 
introduced the volume due to the formation of carbonic oxide, 
and this is equal to the volume of the oxygen used, or 839 
litres. We have, then, 5163 + 839 = 6002 litres. But a 
quantity of oxygen has disappeared corresponding to the 
formation of the water, or 279 — 35 = 244 litres (35 litres 
exists in the coal as above), and 6002 — 244 =5758 litres of 
gas produced by the incomplete combustion of i kilogram of 
coal. 

Now, then, 5163 litres of air contain 4079 litres of nitro- 
gen, which would form - , or 70.8 per cent of the total 

5758 

gas. All these numbers are at 0° and 760 mm. pressure.* 

Generally gasogenes contain less nitrogen, different causes 
producing diminution, among which are the use of a lower 

*One pound of coal would be 6300 grains carbon, 350 grains oxygen^ 

and 350 grains hydrogen; 0.90 lb. carbon produces 2.1 lbs. carbonic oxide^ 

and needs 1.2 lbs. oxygen; 1.2 lbs. oxygen occupies 13.44 cu. ft.; 0.050 lb. 

hydrogen produces 0.450 lb. water, and needs 0.400 lb. oxygen, or 4.48 cu. 

ft. The 0.05 lb. of oxygen in the coal occupies 0.56 cu. ft. Then 13.444- 

4.48 — 0.56 = 17.36 of oxygen required 17.36 X 4-77 = 82.81 cu. ft. of air, , 

containing 65.41 cu. ft. nitrogen. Total gases, 82.81 -}- 13-44 ~ 3-92 = 92.33, 

total volume of gas, and 

65 41 

= 70.8 per cent. 

92.33 



GASEOUS FUELS. lOI 

hydrogen coal than we have taken, and the" decomposition of 
the fuel in the body of the furnace with a certain quantity of 
aqueous vapor formed during the combustion, or from the 
moisture in the air supplied. 

Mahler determined the heat of combustion of a sample of 
gas from the Follembray glass-house, and found its composi 
tion per volume, using coal from Bethune, to be: 

Marsh gas 2 

Hydrogen 12 

Carbonic oxide 21 

Carbonic acid 5 

Nitrogen , 60 

100 
The heat of combustion calculated from its composition is:: 

Marsh gas 0.02 X 10038 = 200.8 

Hydrogen 0.12 X 3091= 370.9 

CO 0.2 1 X 3043 = 639.0 

1210.^ 
With the bomb he found 12 12 calories. 

WATER GAS AND MIXED GAS. 

Water gas is produced when water is decomposed at high 
temperatures by fuels containing but little hydrogen, such 
as anthracite, charcoal, or coke. Mixed with hydrocarbon 
vapors, added to enrich it, or which may have been decom- 
posed with the aqueous vapor, it serves for the illumination 
of a great number of cities, principally in America. But this 
is not its only use, as it is used for heating, and also for gas- 
engines. Mixed with producer gas, it has become a powerful 
means of heating, especially where high temperatures are 
wanted. 

Water gas contains but little nitrogen : this is its main 
distinction from producer gas, and that which gives it a 
special value from an economical heating point of view. 



I02 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

We have previously stated (page 97) that during the 
combustion of carbon in a gasogene, there occurs a genera- 
tion of nearly one third of the total heat were the fuel com- 
pletely burnt. Besides this, the combustion produces a gas 
containing about one third its weight of combustible gas and 
two thirds inert gas (nitrogen), which is mixed with it. 

These are important causes of two sources of loss in 
calories. In an air-gasogene one third of the calories is lost, 
since the gaseous products give up most of their sensible heat 
before being used. The 66 per cent of inert gas carries off 
an enormous quantity of heat to the chimney, and thence to 
the open air. It was with the idea of regaining or stopping 
these losses, or at least a large portion of them, that water 
gas originated. 

Aqueous vapor and carbon, when submitted to a high 
temperature, produce carbonic oxide and hydrogen. Theo- 
retically these are free from nitrogen ; but there is always 
present a small percentage for various causes. In the air 
gasogene 12 kilograms of carbon and 16 kilograms of oxy- 
gen (atomic weights) unite to form 28 kilograms of carbonic 
oxide. On the other hand, 12 kilograms of carbon and 18 
kilograms of water form 28 kilograms of carbonic oxide and 
2 kilograms of hydrogen. Then i kilogram of carbon fur- 
nishes 2.5 kilograms of gas composed of carbonic oxide and 
hydrogen. 

One kilogram of hydrogen has a caloric energy of 29042 
calories.* These calories represent also the quantity of heat 
necessary to decompose the water; in the case of the water 
gas gasogene they are formed by the carbon burnt. The 12 
kilograms of carbon will have to furnish, then, the calories 
necessary to decompose 18 kilograms of water; that is, 

2 X 29042 = 58084 calories. 

* Water being considered as vapor. 



GASEOUS FUELS. 10$ 

But 12 kilograms of carbon, in burning, generate only 
12 X 2473 = 29676 calories. 

To decompose the water, then, there is a shortage of 
force of 

58084 — 29676 ~ 28408 calories 

for 2 kilograms of hydrogen, or 14204 calories for i kilo- 
gram. The heat must be furnished by an external source. 
In other terms, to gasify i kilogram of carbon there must be 
supplied 

14204 -f- 6 = 2367 calories. 

As may be easily seen, this operation absorbs much heat, 
and the combustion of the water gas can give only the calo- 
ries used at first in forming it. The heat necessary for the 
decomposition of the water is actually taken from that of the 
preparatory period of the air gasogene, which makes a loss of 
one third of the total calories. In burning the water gas 
made under these conditions we utilize a part of the heat 
which would have been lost by the air gasogene only. 

The decomposition of water by carbon is not as simple as 
would appear from the equation 

H,0 + C = CO + H,. 

The lower portion of the fuel of the gasogene undergoes 
ordinary combustion on account of air being present; while 
in the upper portion the reaction takes place between the 
gaseous products formed in the lower portion and the heated 
carbon. The carbonic acid is then in contact with the heated 
carbon and is reduced to carbonic oxide: 

C + CO, = 2CO. 



I04 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

ThuS; the reaction with the water would be 

5H,0 + 3C = 2CO, + CO + loH ; 

carbonic acid being reduced to carbonic oxide in the final 
reaction, as in the case with the air gasogene. 

Nine kilograms of aqueous vapor and 6 kilograms of 
carbon produce i kilogram of hydrogen and 14 kilograms of 
carbonic oxide, that is, a mixed gas is produced containing 
about one half its volume of each gas. 

One cubic metre of hydrogen weighs 85.5 grams; one of 
carbonic oxide, 11 94 grams. Then the volumes occupied by 
each gas would be 11.69 ^^"^ hydrogen and 11. 13 for car- 
bojiic oxide, or 51.23 per cent of hydrogen and 48.77 per 
cent of carbonic oxide. 

From the foregoing account, it will be seen that the inter- 
mittent flow is a cause of great loss of caloric in the working 
of the water gasogene ; but when a gas is wanted solely for 
heating at high temperatures, it may be obtained by a mixed 
system working continuously. The gasogene is filled with 
a mixture of air and steam, the air being employed in 
the proper proportion to keep up the heat necessary, or, in 
other words, to furnish by the combustion of part of the 
carbon, the number of calories necessary to the gasifica- 
tion of the other part. 

We have seen (page 103) that to gasify i kilogram of 
carbon 2367 calories were needed. To maintain the heat 
this quantity must be produced by the action of the air. 
Mixed gases are poorer than water gas, as they contain more 
nitrogen and carbonic oxide and less hydrogen. Theo- 
retically, we should attain the result of furnishing the heat to 
the gasogene necessary to maintain the temperature by sup- 
plying the steam sufficiently superheated ; a gas very poor in 
nitrogen would then be made. But the superheating of 
steam causes new losses of heat. 



GASEOUS FUELS. 



105 



NATURAL GAS. 

Natural gas has been known for thousands of years in 
Asia, on the Caspian Sea, where it has long been a feature in 
religious services, but it is only recently that it has become 
of any use to man and played any part in the fuel world. 

The natural gas output in the United States has attracted 
considerable attention since 1875, ^.nd especially since 1880. 
This gas always accompanies petroleum, although petroleum 
does not always accompany the gas. The wells are situated 
in various portions of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, 
Indiana, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Colorado, Cal- 
ifornia, and on the Canadian side also in numerous locations. 

Natural gas is not of a constant or uniform composition, 
A^arying very much according to the locality from which it is 
taken. The individual constituent gases vary between wide 
hmits, hydrogen at some places being almost wanting, while 
at others it is as high as 35 or 40 per cent. Marsh gas is in 
every case the principal constituent, but this runs down as 
low as 40 per cent in some analyses. Nitrogen is some- 
times absent, and when present in large amounts, it is suppos- 
able that the gas analyzed was contaminated with atmospheric 
air. 

The Ohio and Indiana fields yield gas of nearer a uniform 
composition than any of the others. The following table is 
typical : 



Hydrogen 

Marsh gas 

defiant gas 

Oxygen 

Carbonic oxide 

Carbonic acid 

Nitrogen 

Hydrogen sulphide 



Ohio. 



Fostoria 



1.89 
92.84 
0.20 
0.35 
0.55 
0,20 
3-82 
0.15 



Findlay. 



1.64 
93-35 
0.35 
0.39 
0.41 
0.25 

3-41 
0.20 



St.Mary's 



1.94 
93.85 
0.20 
0.35 
0.44 
0.23 
2.98 
0.21 



Indiana. 



Muncie. 



2.35 
92.67 
0.25 
0.35 
0.45 
0.25 

3-53 
0.15 



1.86 

93-07 
0.47 
0.42 

0.73 
0.26 
3.02 
0.15 



Kokomo. 



1.42 

94.16 
0.30 
0.30 
0.55 
0.29 
2.80 
0.18 



io6 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



In addition to difference in composition in different local- 
ities, the composition of the gas varies cons'derably from 
time to time in each well. This is shown by the following 
analyses made at different times within a period of three 
months from a well at Pittsburgh, Pa. : 



Hydrogen 

Marsh gas. . . . 
Olefiant gas. . . 
Illuminants ... 

Oxygen 

Carbonic oxide 
Carbonic acid. 
Nitrogen 



1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


9.64 


14-45 


20.02 


26.T6 


29.03 


57.85 


75.16 


72.18 


65-25 


60.70 


0.80 


0.60 


0.70 


o.So 


0.98 


5.20 


4.80 


3.60 


5-50 


7-92 


2.10 


1.20 


1. 10 


0.80 


0.78 


1. 00 


0.30 


1. 00 


0.80 


0.58 


0.00 


0.30 


0.80 


60 


0.00 


23.41 


2.89 


0.00 


00 


0.00 



35. q2 
49-58 
0.60 
12 30 
0.80 
0.40 
0.40 
0.00 



The quantity of gas used daily in the town of Findlay, 
Ohio, in 1890, was estimated by Professor Orton to be, for 

Glass-furnaces looooooo cubic feet. 

Iron mills lOOOOOOO "- " 

Other factories 6000000 *' '* 

Domestic use 4000000 '' '* 

Total per day 30000000 '' ** 

In Indiana, large wells have been opened and used as in 
Ohio. In Pennsylvania, several of the large rolling-mills and 
glass-houses near Pittsburg were formerly supplied with mill- 
ions of feet per day ; but the supply, used so lavishly, became 
exhausted. In Canada, at Fort Erie and Windsor are wells, 
the gas from which is piped across the river to Buffalo and 
Detroit respectively. All through the oil regions gas wells 
are to be found more or less, accompanying every well sunk. 

From the composition of the gas, it will readily be seen 
that it is a valuable source of heat, the calorific power reach- 
ing loooo calories or 1 100 B. T. U. per cubic foot. It is used 
for domestic purposes, steam, glass making, iron mills, brick 
burning, and numerous other ways, and until recently used 
wastefuUy in all. 



GASEOUS FUELS, IO7 

As compared with coal, 57.25 pounds of coal or 63 pounds 
of" coke are about equal to 1000 cubic feet of the gas. The 
actual equivalent in steaming or furnace work varies with the 
furnace, and proj^ably with the people using it. Equivalent 
values of 14000 to 25000 cubic feet per ton of coal are 
reported, and hardly any two users will give the same yield. 
It seems to be especially adapted to glass making, giving a 
long, clean, ashless, smokeless flame, and hundreds of glass- 
pots were set up in the neighborhood of the wells, especially 
in Ohio. Each pot consumes from 58000 to 61000 cubic feet 
per 24 hours in window-glass works and from 31000 to 49000 
cubic feet in flint-glass works, the difference being of 
course due to difference in burners and men, the gas being 
the same. 

In all cases where this gas is used the chief claim made, in 
addition to those of gases generally, has been cheapness, and 
it has been sold without any regard to its actual value. A 
comparison of its value with that of other gases is given by 
McMillin in the Report of the Ohio Geological Survey, vol. 
VI, page 544, as follows: 

1000 feet natural gas will evaporate .... 893 pounds of water. 



( < 


i i 


coal '' '' 


i ( 


591 


a 


<( 


water ** '' 


tt 


262 


it 


( i 


producer gas** 


It 
OIL GAS. 


115 



There are several processes for producing gas from oiU 
usually petroleum or its derivatives. Some of them decom- 
pose the oil by means of heat alone, while others use steam, 
or steam and air together. The most successful pure oil 
process is the Pintsch ; this is used extensively in the large 
cities of Europe and America to obtain a gas for illuminating 
cars on railways. The gas is made by allowing the oil to fall 
drop by drop on a strongly heated surface. Complete decom- 



I08 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

position occurs, and a gas of high candle-power is formed. 
This is collected, and after compression supplied to the con- 
sumers. It loses some 20 per cent of the illuminating power 
during compression. As a source of heat, its use is, so far, 
very limited. An analysis and heat test will be found in the 
tables. 

The Archer gas process is somewhat similar to the Pintsch, 
but the products of decomposition are generated at a com- 
paratively low temperature, and then superheated subse- 
quently so as to make the gas permanent. This gas is used 
for metallurgical purposes, but its use for heating boilers is 
very limited. 

The other gases made with steam or steam and air have 
been advertised or pushed as fuel gases for several years. 
Many plants have been established and failed. A few of the 
most prominent are mentioned in the tables. 

OTHER GASES. 

Gas has been obtained from destructive distillation of 
wood, rosin, fats, and other materials. They were used prin- 
cipally for illumination, and seldom if ever for heat. They 
are now made only in very exceptional cases. 



I 



CHAPTER X. 

CALORIFIC POWER OF COAL BURNT UNDER 
A STEAM-BOILER. 

FUEL USED AND WATER EVAPORATED. 

DISTRIBUTION OF THE HEAT PRODUCED. 

Experiments in heating steam-boilers have to deter- 
mine : 

1. How much water is vaporized by a given quantity of 
coal, so as to compare it with other coals or fuels ; 

2. The evaporative power of the steam-boiler used; 

3. A comparison of the various styles of grates or meth- 
ods of heating applied to steam-boilers. 

In this book we will consider only the first case, the 
others being outside of its scope. 

The knowledge of the heat of combustion of coal and 
other fuels is closely connected with experiments in heating 
steam-boilers. It is not enough to know the proportion of 
water which the apparatus or the fuel tested will vaporize : 
we must also determine the number of calories lost. We 
must know, besides, the composition of the coal and its heat 
of combustion, to determine the proportion of calories used to 
that possible with perfect combustion. 

The first work in this direction worth mentioning was 
probably that done by Peclet in 1833, but his results were 
very crude, and are of no account now. The next were those 
made by Prof. Johnson, in 1842 and 1843, for the U. S. 
Navy Department, to determine the steaming powers of the 

log 



no CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

coals then in use. He analyzed and tested some thirty-five 
different coals, domestic and foreign. The tests were made 
with a specially built boiler, and careful and copious notes 
were taken all through. The chimney gases were analyzed, 
and an attempt made to determine their quantity. In 1891 
Mr. W. Kent* reviewed his work, and found that, with correc- 
tions for the constants employed by Johnson, the tests were 
comparable with those made at the present time. The 
figures given in the tables as Johnson's are with Kent's 
corrections. 

The first experiments based on the knowledge of the 
composition and heat of combustion of coal were published 
in 1868 and 1869 in the Bulletin de la Socidt^ Industrielle 
de MulJwuse. Scheurer-Kestner remarks in the first part of 
this work, which he prosecuted later on with assistance of 
Meunier-Dollfus (/c'f. cit. p. i): 

**It is necessary to analyze the great difference found 
between the theoretical heat of combustion (at that time 
no actual determinations had been made) and the practical 
yield. 

'* Several elements of the calculation aid in making this 
shortage. The principal ones are : 

'* The heat of combustion of the coal; 

*' The composition of the coal; 

** The composition of the cinders as drawn from the 
ash-pit ; 

** The quantity of water vaporized and the temperature 
of the steam produced ; 

"The volume of gases introduced under the grate, and 
their temperature when they leave the boiler to pass into the 
chimney ; 

**The composition of the gaseous products of combus- 
tion ; 

* Engineering and Mining Journal, Oct. 1891. 



WEIGHT OF FUEL. 1 1 1 

''The temperature of the cinders at the time of dumping; 

'' The loss of caloric by radiation from the setting of the 
boiler." 

We must refer to mineral and organic as well as gas 
analysis to obtain the necessary elements for the distribution 
of the caloric produced by the combustion of the coal on a 
steam-boiler grate. 

To avoid referring to them, we will consider the composi- 
tion and heat of combustion of coal as known. (See tables.) 

WEIGHT OF FUEL. 

The coal used in the test should be kept under cover 
away from moisture and heat, so that the hygroscopic water 
it contains shall vary as little as possible from the time of 
taking the sample. Weigh the coal in the gross, and then 
weigh portions of about lOO kilograms (220 lbs.) on a scale 
sensible to y^Vo"- 

Where practicable, a box open at the top and holding 
500 pounds of coal should be provided for each 25 square 
feet grate area, and in proportion for larger grates. It 
should be placed on the scales, and conveniently located for 
shoveling into the fire. 

The exact time of weighing should be noted and the 
exact weight set down. The weight should be taken at the 
instant of closing the fire-door. The box should be com- 
pletely emptied each time. The difference of weight at each 
firing will give the several quantities fired ; the differences of 
time will give the intervals between firing; and the differ- 
ence of time between successive charges will serve as a check 
on the record of the test. A chart or diagram should be 
made showing the regularity of the working, and it is well to 
keep the records in tabular form ; weights in one column, time 
in another. 



112 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

SAMPLING THE COAL. 

In all experiments for determining heat of combustion of 
fuels, the sampling must be done with the utmost care, espe- 
cially if the laboratory and working test are to be made at 
the same time. Samples accurately representing the coal of 
the working test must be kept in the laboratory, and when 
coal is tested which contains foreign matter and considerable 
moisture, too much care cannot be taken to prevent errors. 

The official method of the American Society of Mechanical 
Engineers is given in the Appendix, and answers the purpose 
very well. If very large quantities are to be sampled, remove 
a portion from each cart-load and then re-sample these as per 
directions above mentioned. 

It is not always necessary to resort to these -methods. 
When the coal comes from the same pit and level, experience 
has shown that a piece which seems to agree with the general 
character is usually sufficient. Care must be taken to avoid 
samples having too much hanging-wall or bed-rock. For 
twenty years the pure coal of Ronchamp taken from the 
same pit has given the same calorimetric test, when it con- 
tained from lo to 20 per cent of ash. Lord and Haas* 
showed that the same was true of many American mines, 
especially in Ohio and Pennsylvania. This being true, we 
could consider that in sampling we did not sample the coal, 
but the impurities; and that a sample showing the average 
impurities would give all that was needed, as we would know 
what the coal was. 

Care must be taken with regard to the moisture, and any 
coal showing much external moisture must be examined as 
near as possible to the original condition. For example, a 
coal containing lo per cent of moisture in the pile may, after 
sampling, crushing, and resampling, lose all but 4 or 5 per 
cent. If the moisture was determined in this coal while in as 

* Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., Feb. 1897. 



ANALYSIS OF COAL. 113 

large pieces as possible, this moisture would all be accounted 
for. 

In spite of all precautions, samples do not always agree in 
mineral content with the mass. The difference seems to be due 
not only to the unequal distribution of the foreign mineral 
matter throughout the coal, but principally to the difference 
in specific gravity between the coal and this mineral, so that 
the purer the coal the more satisfactory the sampling. 

Sometimes a coal is rich in foreign matter, and is contained 
in a tube open at one end. From this samples may be drawn 
showing differences of several per cents ; as for example, 12.49 
and 16.74 per cent obtained in two successive cases. The 
following experiment shows how this happens and how to 
prevent it : 30 grams of coal, finely pulverized, and contain- 
ing 20 per cent of mineral, was put into a glass tube, which 
was closed with a cork and placed vertically, giving it slight 
taps to settle it down. In a short time most of the foreign 
material was at the bottom of the tube, the upper portion 
being nearly free. To avoid such an error the sample must 
be drawn only after thorough mixing, and without any shaking 
or jarring of the tube. It is well to use pastilles made up 
immediately after thorough mixing. A sample containing 
only 13 to 14 per cent of foreign matter has given from a 
tube, 12.20, 12.81, 13.12, 13.50, 14.42 per cent. 

ANALYSIS OF THE COAL. 

"No attempt will be made to treat the methods of ana- 
lyzing coal ; still, as this usually accompanies a calorimetric 
determination, some hints may be useful. Scheurer-Kestner 
usually burns the coal in tubes of white glass placed on an 
iron gutter. The same tube may thus serve several times if 
asbestos cloth be placed between the tube and the iron and 
the cooling be properly regulated. His tubes are 70 to 75 
centimetres (27 to 29 inches) long and 15 to 20 millimetres 



114 CALORinC POWER OF FUELS, 

(0.6 to 0.8 inch) inside diameter. They are filled with copper 
oxide in small pieces, except at the front end, which has a 
small piece of metallic copper, and at the back, where the 
platinum boat containing the coal is placed. Usually half a 
gram is used for a test, the coal having been previously dried 
at 100° to 105° C. (212° to 221° F.). 

Before putting in the sample the tube is heated to redness 
and thoroughly dried by means of a current of dry oxygen. 
The combustion is carried on so as to allow time enough for 
all the gas to be absorbed by the potash, during the first half 
of the time the bubbles passing through very slowly. There 
is no risk then of unburnt gases passing off. An iron or a 
platinum tube may be used in place of the glass one, but glass 
allows inspection at all times. 

An analysis should show the carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, 
nitrogen, sulphur, ash, and moisture, and they should be so 
given that the carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, 
and ash should equal lOO per cent, the moisture being 
determined separately, or if preferred all but ash and moisture 
may foot up lOO, and those two be given separately. This 
latter method is the one which is followed by many of the 
European engineers, and will be found so in the tables given 
at the end of this book. If possible the approximate analysis 
should also be given. 

In determining the moisture too much care cannot be 
taken to expel all of it. With many coals, and especially our 
Western ones, the ordinary heating to 110° C. is not suffi- 
cient, Kent, Carpenter, Hale, and others have investigated 
this question, and find that a much higher temperature is 
needed, and must be employed. In some cases as high as 
140° to 150° C. may be used with safety, and such tempera- 
tures are recommended by Carpenter, no appreciable amount 
of volatile matter being driven off. 



DURATION OF THE TEST. 



115 



ANALYSIS OF THE CINDERS. 

The cinders and ashes produced by the combustion of the 
coal are collected so as to weigh and sample them. After 
drying and determining the water the sample is put into a 
glass tube as with coal. As the quantity of hydrogen is 
usually very small, it need not be determined, and the 
calcination for the carbon can be performed in the open air. 
The following table contains the results of the tests made 
by Scheurer-Kestner and Meunier-Dollfus on steam-boiler 
cinders : 



Carbon. . . 
Hydrogen 
Ash 



f 


2 


3 


9.20 

0.37 
89-95 


12.65 

0.29 

86.50 


6.73 

0.21 

92.64 


99-52 


99-44 


99-58 



8.92 
0.27 

91.42 



99.61 



The proportion of carbon in cinders may be as low as 7 
per cent, but is usually higher, and 10 to 12 per cent may be 
called good practice. 



DURATION OF THE TEST. 

A test should continue at least a whole day on account of 
certain irregularities and causes of error which are constant. 
The level of the water should be the same at the end of the 
test as at the beginning, since a slight difference in level 
means considerable water. 

The condition of the combustion at the time of stopping 
cannot always be ascertained, and this produces a cause of 
uncertainty. Another cause is from the temperature of the 
water in the boiler, and especially in the economizer. On 
short runs these sources of error cause very faulty results. 



Il6 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



THE WATER EVAPORATED. 

The feed-water is preferably held in a gauged reservoir, or 
else weighed, meters not being certain unless checked fre- 
quently. Use only cold water or water whose temperature 
will vary but little during the test, so as to avoid corrections 
of temperature and expansion. The temperature usually 
varies so little that no account of this variation need be taken. 
Pump to the boiler with as much regularity as possible, and 
keep accurate record. 

To have the same level at the end as at the beginning, 
keep up the initial pressure and feed very carefully. The 
mean temperature of the feed-water is referred to o° C, con- 
sidering that the specific heat is constant. Otherwise we may 
use Regnault's formula, 

Q — t — 0.00002/'' -|" 0.0000003/'. 

But when the temperature of the water varies no more than 
10 degrees, no appreciable error will be made by calling / 
equal to the temperature. 

TEMPERATURE OF THE STEAM. 

We may measure the temperature of the steam directly by^ 
a thermometer in the boiler, or indirectly by observing the 
pressure. Both methods should be used. . 

To take the temperature directly, the thermometer is 
placed in an iron tube closed at one end and reaching to the 
middle of the boiler. The tube should be filled with parafifin 
or some analogous substance. The temperature of the 
steam or the water may be taken as desired by changing the 
position of the thermometer in the tube. See Figure 39. 
Vertical maximum and minimum thermometers are very use- 
ful, preventing too hasty observations. 



MOISTURE IN THE STEAM. H/ 

To measure the temperature by pressure an air-thermom- 
eter is used. A registering manometer aids the work consid- 
erably, as observations should be taken regularly at frequent 
and equal intervals. The temperature is calculated by means 
of tables of vapor-tension.* 

MOISTURE IN THE STEAM. 

The percentage of moisture should be ascertained by 
means of a throttling or a separating calorimeter, directions 
for the use of which will be furnished by the makers. They 
should easily and completely separate the water in a manner 
convenient for measuring, or better, for weighing. It is ad- 
visable to use two or three at the same time, thus serving as 
checks for each other. 

"The throttling steam-calorimeter was first described by 
Professor Peabody in the Trans actions, \ vol. X. page 327, 
and its modifications by Mr. Barrus, vol. XI. page 790; vol. 
XVII. page 617; and by Professor Carpenter, vol. Xll. page 
840 ; also the separating-calorimeter designed by Professor 
Carpenter, vol. XVII. page 608. These instruments are used 
to determine the moisture existing in a small sample of steam 
taken from the steam-pipe, and give results, when properly 
handled, which may be accepted as accurate within 0.5 per 
cent (this percentage being computed on the total quantity of 
the steam) for the sample taken. The possible error of 0.5 
per cent is the aggregate of the probable error of careful ob- 
servation, and of the errors due to inaccuracy of the pressure- 
gauges and thermometers; to radiation; and, in the case of 
the throttling-calorimeter, to the possible inaccuracy of the 
figure 0.48 for the specific heat of superheated steam, which 

* For full details regarding setting up an open-air manometer, see paper 
by Scheurer-Kestner and Meunier-Dollfus in the Bulletin de la Societe in- 
dustrielle de Mulhouse, 1869, page 241; also Trans. A. S. M. E., vol. vi. 
pages 281 and 282. 

f Transactions A. S. M. E. 



IIo CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

is used in computing the results. It is, however, by no means 
certain that the sample represents the average quality of the 
steam in the pipe from which the sample is taken. The prac- 
tical impossibility of obtaining an accurate sample, especially 
when the percentage of moisture exceeds two or three per 
cent, is shown in the two papers by Professor Jacobus in 
Transactions,'^ vol. XVI. pages 448, 10 17. 

*' In trials of the ordinary forms of horizontal shell and of 
water-tube boilers, in which there is a large disengaging sur- 
face, when the water-level is carried at least 10 inches below 
the level of the steam outlet, and when the water is not of a 
character to cause foaming, and when in the case of water- 
tube boilers the steam outlet is placed in the rear of the mid* 
die of the length of the water-drum, the maximum quantity 
of moisture in the steam rarely, if ever, exceeds two per* cent; 
and in such cases a sample taken with the precautions speci- 
fied in article xill. of the Code may be considered to be an 
accurate average sample of the steam furnished by the boiler, 
and its percentage of moisture as determined by the throttling 
or separating calorimeter may be considered as accurate within 
one half of one per cent. For scientific research, and in all 
cases in which there is reason to suspect that the moisture 
may exceed two per cent, a steam-separator should be placea 
in the steam-pipe, as near to the steam outlet of the boiler as 
convenient, well covered with felting, all the steam made by 
the boiler passing through it, and all the moisture caught by 
it carefully weighed after being cooled. A convenient method 
of 'obtaining the weight of the drip from the separator is to 
discharge it through a trap into a barrel of cold water stand- 
ing on a platform scale. A throttling or a separating calo- 
rimeter should be placed in the steam-pipe, just beyond the 
steam-separator, for the purpose of determining, by the 
sampling method, the small percentage of moisture which 
may still be in the steam after passing through the separator. 
*Transactions A. S. M. E. 



QUALITY OF STEAM. I I9 

*' The formula for calculating the percentage of moisture 
when the throttling-calorimeter is used is the following: 

H- h- k{T-t) 
w = 100 X 



L 

in which w — percentage of moisture in the steam, 77= total 
heat and L — latent heat per pound of steam at the pressure in 
the steam-pipe, h = total heat per pound of steam at the pres' 
sure in the discharge side of the calorimeter, k = specific heat 
of superheated steam, 7"= temperature of the throttled and 
superheated steam in the calorimeter, and / = temperature 
due to the pressure in the discharge side of the calorimeter, = 
212° Fahr. at atmospheric pressure. Taking /^ = 0.48 and 
/ =: 212, the formula reduces to 

H— 1146.6 — 0.48(7— 212)* „ 

W = 100 X 7 • 



CORRECTIONS FOR QUALITY OF STEAM. f 

Given the percentage of moisture or number of degrees of 
superheating, it is desirable to develop formulae showing what 
we have termed ' ' the factor of correction for quality of steam, "" 
or the factor by which the ' ' apparent evaporation, " determined 
by a boiler-test, is to be multiplied to obtain the '' evaporation 
corrected for quality of steam." It has been customary to call 
the proportional weight of steam in a mixture of steam and 
water *'the quality of the steam," and it is not desirable to 
change this designation. The same term applies when the 
steam is superheated by employing the " equivalent evapora- 
tion," or that obtained by adding to the actual evaporation the 

* William Kent in the Report of the Committee on Boiler-tests, A. S. 
M. E.. i8g7. 

f C. E. Emery in the Report of Committee on Boiler-tests, A. S. M. E., 
1897. 



I20 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS, 

proportional weight of water which the thermal value of the 
superheating would evaporate into dry steam from and at the 
temperature due to the pressure. ''The factor of correction 
for quality of steam " in a boiler-test differs from the ' ' quality " 
itself, from the fact that the temperature of the feed-water 
is lower than that of the steam. 
Let 

Q zzz quality of moist steam as described above ; 
Q^ = the quality of superheated steam as described above ; 
P = the proportion of moisture in the steam ; 
J^ = the number of degrees of superheating; 
F= the factor of correction for the quality of the steam 

when the steam is moist • 
/^i = the factor of correction for the quality of the steam 

when the steam is superheated ; 
H =z the total heat of the steam due to the steam-pressure; 
L = the latent heat of the steam due to the steam-pressure ; 
T = the temperature of the steam due to the steam-pressure ; 
7", =z the total heat in the water at the temperature due to 

the steam-pressure;^^ 
y =z the temperature of the feed- water; 
y, = the total heat in the feed-water due to the temperature.* 

Therefore, for moist sceam, 

Q=i-P, (I) 

P= 1 - Q (2) 

Q + P=i (3) 

See also equation (6). 

* Most tables of the properties of steam and of water are based on the 
total heat of steam and water above 32 degrees Fahr. For such tables the 
total heat in the water at a given temperature is equal approximately to 
the corresponding temperature minus 32 degrees. Exact values should, 
however, be taken from the tables. 



QUALITY OF STEAM. 121 

With both the condensing and throttling calorimeters the 
Avater and steam are withdrawn from the boiler at the temper- 
ature of the steam, and with a separator the water can only be 
accurately measured when underpressure, so that the difference 
l)etween the steam and the moisture in the steam, as they leave 
the boiler, is simply that the former has received the latent 
heat due to the pressure, and the latter has not. There is, 
however, imparted to the water in the boiler not only the 
latent heat in the portion evaporated, but the sensible heat 
due to raising the temperature of all the water from that of 
the feed -water to that of the steam due to the pressure. 

In equation (3) the proporti6nal part Q receives from the 
boiler both the sensible and the latent heat, or the total heat 
above the temperature of the feed = Q(^H — J^ thermal units, 
and the part Pthe difference in sensible heat betw^een the tem- 
peratures of the steam and of the feed-water ~ P[T^ — J^ 
thermal units. If all the water were evaporated, each pound 
would receive the total heat in the steam above the tempera- 
ture of the feed, ov H — J^. '* The factor of correction for 
the quality of the steam," when there is no superheating, is 
therefore 

P- . //_/. -Q + ^Kh^j} ■ (4) 

The superheating of the steam requires 0.48 of a thermal 
unit for each degree the temperature of the steam is raised, 
^o for k degrees of superheating there will be 0.48/^ thermal 
-anits per pound weight of steam, and the '* factor of correc- 
tion for the quality of the steam " with superheating. 

//-/, + 0.48^ o.4ik 

^' = — w^j, — = ' + H:rr- • • (5) 

See also equation (7). 



122 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

With the throtthng-calorimeter the percentage of moisture 
P, or number of degrees of superheating, are determined as 
explained before. 

Since the invention of the throttling-calorimeter the use 
of the original condensing, or so-ealled barrel, calorimeter is 
no longer warranted. Accurate results should, however, be 
obtained by condensing all the steam generated in the boiler, 
and this plan has been followed in certain cases. It has, 
therefore, been thought desirable to add other formulae ap- 
plicable to condensing-calorimeters. The following additional 
notation is required -. 

W =i the original weight of the water in calorimeter, or 
weight of circulating water for a surface condenser. 

w = the weight of water added to the calorimeter by blow- 
ing steam into the water, or of " water of condensation " with 
a surface condenser. 

/ = total heat of water corresponding to initial tempera- 
ture of water in calorimeter. 

/j = total heat of water corresponding to final temperature 
in calorimeter. 

Evidently, then : 

W{t^ — /) = the total thermal units withdrawn from the 
boiler and imparted to the water in calorimeter. 

W 
— it — /) = the thermal units per pound of water with- 

w 

drawn from the boiler and imparted to the water in calorim- 
eter, from which should be deducted T, — /, to obtain the 
number of thermal units per pound of water withdrawn from 
the boiler at the pressure due to the temperature T. 

Since only the latent heat L is imparted to the portion of 
the water evaporated, the quality Q, or proportional quantity 
evaporated, may be obtained by dividing the total thermal 
units per pound of water abstracted at the pressure due to the 
temperature T by the latent heat L. Hence, as given in 



QUALITY OF SUPERHEATED STEAM. 12$ 

Appendix XVII., 1885 Code, with some differences in nota- 
tion, 

aanda = 2[^(^.-0-(r, -A)]. . . (6) 

The value Q applies when the second term is less than 
unity. P may be derived therefrom by substitution in equa- 
tion (2) and F from equation (4). 

Q^ applies when the second term of the above equation is 
greater than unity, which shows that the steam is superheated, 
and, as in this case, the heating value of the superheat has 
already been measured by heating the water of the calorim- 
eter; the proportional thermal value of the same, in terms 
of the latent heat Z, is represented directly by Q^ — i, and 
we have as the factor of correction for the quality of the steam 
with superheating, 

See also equation (5). 

When the quality is greater than i, or equals Q^ , the num- 
ber of degrees of superheating, 

^= ^^i[^'^ ~^-oSi3L{Q.-i)- . ■ (8) 



THE QUALITY OF SUPERHEATED STEAM. ^ 

The quality of the superheated steam is determined from 
the number of degrees of superheating by using the following 
formula : 

_ Z + o.48(r-^) 
^~ L 

* G. H. Barrus in Report of Committee on Boiler-tests, A. S. M. E., 
1897. 



124 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

in which L is the latent heat in British thermal units in one 
pound of steam of the observed pressure ; T the observed 
temperature, and / the normal temperature due to the pres- 
sure. This normal temperature should be determined by ob- 
taining a reading of the thermometer when the fires are in a 
dead condition and the superheat has disappeared. This tem- 
perature being observed when the pressure as shown by the 
gauge is the average of the readings taken during the trial, 
observations being made by the same instrument, errors of 
gauge or thermometer are practically eliminated. 

DETERMINATION OF THE MOISTURE IN STEAM FLOWING 
THROUGH A HORIZONTAL PIPE.* 

In some cases it is impossible to place the sampling 
nozzle in a vertical steam-pipe rising from the boiler as 
recommended in Article XIV. of the Rules for Steam- 
boiler Trials. t When this is the case and it is possible 
to connect to a horizontal steam-pipe the arrangement of 
throttling calorimeters shown in Fig. 2'jg gives satisfactory 
results. 

The calorimeter A is attached to the separator G^ which 
is in turn attached to the under side of the steam-pipe by the 
nipple D, The nipple D is made flush with the bottom of the 
pipe. The calorimeter B is attached to a nozzle having no 
side holes, which passes through the stuffing-box E. This 
nozzle is adjustable so that the steam can be drawn from any 
height in the pipe. When in its lowest position it is flush 
with the bottom of the pipe. The calorimeter C is attached 
to the perforated nipple F, The calorimeters are placed at 
some distance from an elbow or bend, so that if there is 
moisture in the steam it tends to run along the bottom of the 

* By Prof. D. S. Jacobus. f See page i86. 



DETERMINATION OF THE MOISTURE IN STEAM. 124a 

pipe. This moisture will flow into the nipple I) and collect 
in the separator G. Nearly all the moisture may sometimes 




\ 



P§^ 



be drawn out in this way, and if the calorimeters B and C in- 
dicate dry steam, the weight of moisture collected in G rep- 
resents the entire moisture in the steam. The three calorim- 
eters are all covered in the same way to diminish radiation, 
and the normal reading of the thermometers / and y used in 
the calorimeters B and C can ordinarily be obtained by plac- 



I24<^ CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

ing them in the calorimeter A. The perforated nipple F 
serves to show that there is no moisture distributed through 
the steam, and in the case of a sudden belch of moisture it 
will indicate the same. Barrus calorimeters were used in our 
tests, and the calorimeter A, combined with the separator Gy 
forms in reality a Barrus Universal Calorimeter. With a 
properly constructed separator, the steam passing through the 
calorimeter A will be practically dry with as high as sixty 
pounds of moisture drawn from the separator per hour, and, 
until this limit is exceeded, the normal readings of the ther- 
mometers used in the calorimeters B and C may be obtained 
by placing them in the calorimeter A^ as has already been 
stated. 

In some cases the calorimeter C is omitted and the 
amount of moisture is determined by means of the separator, 
with the adjustable nozzle at E and the separator and calo- 
rimeter A. 

The percentage of priming P iox the steam passing through 
the calorimeters B and C is given by the formula 



P = ^(i\^- 2), 



where P = the percentage of priming; 

N = the normal reading, in degrees Fahrenheit, ob- 
tained placing the thermometers in A ; 

T = the reading when placed in either B ox C \ 

L ■= the latent heat at the pressure of the steam in 
the steam main in British thermal units per 
pound. 

It is best to employ the normal reading in calcula- 
ting the moisture corresponding to the readings of a throt- 



DETERMINATION OF THE MOISTURE IN STEAM, I24C 

tling calorimeter. The radiation of the calorimeter must 
also be determined by a separate experiment, and allowed 
for. When the normal reading is taken all errors of 
radiation and corrections for the thermometers are elimi- 
nated. 

The normal reading should be obtained either by connect- 
ing the calorimeter to a vertical nipple, with no side holes, 
which projects upward in a horizontal steam-pipe, in which 
the steam is in a quiescent state, or it should be obtained by 
connecting the calorimeter to a separator, which is known 
to remove all the moisture. The normal reading should 
not be determined when the calorimeter is attached to a 
horizontal nipple with side holes, placed in a vertical 
pipe, because should this be done the readings may be low 
on account of moisture, which may fall through the steam 
and cling to the nozzle, and, finally, be drawn into the 
calorimeter. 

The results given by a throttling calorimeter cannot be 
relied on within one-fifth of one per cent, because experi- 
ments have shown that the quality of the "dead steam" 
used in obtaining the normal readings may vary by this 
amount."^ As the quality of the ''dead steam" may not 
be that of the steam used by Regnault in his experiments, 
there may be a still greater error. When the formula 
given on page 119 is used the probable error is not eli- 
minated, for a study of Regnault's experiments shows 
that the value used in the formula for the specific heat 
of superheated steam may be slightly in error for the con- 
ditions involved in a throttling calorimeter. Experiments 
have shown that the two methods of computing the 
moisture agree within one-fifth of one per cent when the 
proper corrections are made for radiation, and when the 



* Transactions American Society of Mechanical Engineers, vol. xvi. p. 
466. 



124^ CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

temperatures are reduced to the equivalents by an air 
thermometer.^ These experiments were made at the 
single pressure of 80 lbs. per square inch above the atmos- 
phere, and it has not been shown that the two methods 
agree within this amount at all pressures, but as there should 
be no discrepancy provided the specific heat factor remains 
constant for the conditions involved, it is probable that the 
two methods agree very nearly with each other at all 
pressures.! 

What is needed are tests to compare the quality of 
**dead steam "with the quality of the steam used in 
Regnault's experiments, and until this is done throttling- 
calorimeter results cannot be relied upon within one-fifth 
of one per cent, and may be in greater error than this 
amount. 



COMBINED CALORIMETER AND SEPARATOR.;}: 

The form of steam-calorimeter termed the '' 1895 pat- 
tern " or universal steam-calorimeter is a modification of 
the one described in the Transactions Am. Soc. Mech. 
Eng., vol. XI. page 790. It is illustrated in the accompany- 
ing cut, which is reprinted from vol. XVII. page 618, of the 
same Transactions. It consists of a throttling calorimeter 
and separator combined, the latter being attached to the 
outlet where the steam of atmospheric pressure is escap- 
ing. If the moisture is too great to be determined by the 



* Transactions American Society of Mechanical Engineers, vol. xvi. p. 
460. 

f It must not be inferred from this that the specific heat of steam is the 
same at all pressures. On the contrary. Jacobus's experiments show that 
this is not the case. 

:f By George H. Barrus. 



COMBINED CALORIMETER AND SEPARATOR. 



I24e 



readings of the two thermometers, the separator catches 
the balance, and the total quantity of moisture is made 





ieOw 




Fig. 27>^. — Combined Calorimeter and Separator. 



up in part of that shown by the thermometers, and in part 
of that collected from 'the separator. The percentage of 
moisture shown by the thermometers is obtained by refer- 
ring the indication of the lower thermometer to the normal 
reading of that thermometer with dry steam, and dividing 
the fall of temperature by the constant of the instrument 
for one per cent of moisture. The normal reading is 
determined by observing the indications when steam in the 
main pipe is in a quiescent state, and the constant is a 
quantity varying from 2i degrees at 80 pounds pressure to 
20 degrees at 200 pounds pressure. The percentage of 



124/ CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

moisture, if any, discharged from the separator, is found by 
dividing its quantity corrected for radiation by the total 
quantity of steam and water passing through the instru- 
ment in the same time, as ascertained by experiment, and 
multiplying the result by lOO. 



CHAPTER XL 

AIR SUPI?.LIED AND GASEOUS PRODUCTS OF COM- 
BUSTION. 

VOLUME OF AIR NECESSARY TO COMBUSTION. 

Four elements are to be considered in calculating the 
theoretical volume of air for combustion: carbon, hydrogen, 
oxygen, sulphur. The last is sometimes wanting in coal, but 
not usually. 

Carbon. — The atomic weights of carbon and oxygen are 
as 12 and i6, and 2 atoms of oxygen are needed to form car- 
bonic acid with i atom of carbon. Then 

12 : 32 = I : 2.666. 

I kilogram of oxygen occupies 0.699 cubic metre (Table IV); 
I kilogram of carbon needs 

0.699 X 2.666 — 1.863 cubic metres of oxygen. 

Hydrogen. — The atomic weights of hydrogen and oxygen 
'being respectively i and 16, and water being formed of 2 
atoms of hydrogen and i of oxygen, we have 

2 : 16 = I : 8; 

and as i kilogram of oxygen occupies 0.699 cubic metre, i 
Icilogram of hydrogen requires 

8 X 0.699 = 5-592 cubic metres of oxygen. 

125 



126 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

Sulphur. — The atomic weights of sulphur and oxygen 
being as 32 to 16, and sulphurous acid containing I atom of 
sulphur and 2 atoms of oxygen, we have 

32 : 32 = I : I. 

I kilogram of oxygen occupies 0.699 cubic metre; I kilo> 
gram of sulphur needs, then, to form sulphurous acid 

I X 0.699 — 0-699 cubic metre of oxygen. 

As most fuels have some oxygen in their composition, we 
must deduct this at the rate of 0.699 cubic metre per kilo- 
gram. 

Then multiplying these results by 4.77 (Table XIV) we 
obtain the number of cubic metres of air required. 

A simifar method of calculation will give 

For one pound of carbon 29.86 cubic feet of oxygen* 

" hydrogen 89.60 '' " '* 

" sulphur 11.20 " '' " 

As an example, take a coal containing 90^ C, 5^ H, 3-5/^ 
O, o.iio N, and 0.5^ S. 

C 0.900 X 1.863 = 1.677 cubic metres. 

H 0.040X5.592=0.224 

S 0.005 X 0.699 — 0.003 

Total oxygen i .904 

O . . . .0.035 X 0.699 — 0.024 

1.880 

1.880 X 4.77 = 8.967 cubic metres of air per kilogram of 
coal; or 143.98 cubic feet of air to the pound of coal. 

This result of course is only approximate, as complete 
combustion is not attained with coal and solid fuels. With 
liquid fuels, and especially gases, however, the combustion is 
usually complete. 



VOLUME CF WASTE CASES BY ANALYSIS. 12/ 

Tables V and VI gives the coefficients to be employed in 
the calculations. 

Table XIII gives the theoretical quantity of air required 
for the combustion of various fuels; the actual quantity 
used depends on the conditions of firing, fuel, etc, and is 
seldom less than twice the amount shown in the table, except 
perhaps with gases. 

VOLUME OF WASTE GASES BY ANALYSIS. 

For a long time efforts have been made to determine the 
quantity of air used by comparison of the analyses of the 
waste gases with those of the fuel used. Many analyses 
have been published, but the results showed so little regu- 
larity, and were so contradictory even, that it was impossible 
to form any conclusion further than that waste gases from 
coal may contain at the same time both combustible gas and 
an excess of air. 

Peclet, in 1827, published the first analyses, made with 
samples collected from a boiler-stack by means of an inverted 
flask containing water. Ebelmen, in 1844, published a 
memoir on the composition of gases from industrial furnaces. 
He analyzed the gases from a metallurgical furnace, the gas 
being collected by an aspirator. In 1847 Combes made a 
report on methods of burning or preventing smoke, giving 
analyses by Debette. In these the first attempts were made 
to obtain average samples, they being drawn at certain deter- 
mined stages of the heat and the fuel. 

In 1862 Commines de Marcilly published analyses of 
gases from locomotives, as well as from stationary boilers, 
but the author said the time of collection lasted only a few 
seconds. In 1866 Cailletet showed that, to obtain correct 
results, the gas should not be collected till somewhat cooled ; 
otherwise, on account of dissociation, a larger proportion of 
combustible gas is found than when cooler. 

But, on account of the defective methods of sampling 



128 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

used, no conclusion other than that stated above can be 
drawn from these analyses, and no possible idea can be 
deduced as to the actual composition of the gases as a whole. 
When we try to use laboratory methods of control in practi- 
cal workings, the first necessity is to obtain correct samples 
for analysis, that is, average samples. In this respect all the 
above -quoted authors are deficient. The tests made by 
Scheurer-Kestner, published in 1868, were the first to con- 
form to this requirement. His samples were drawn by a 
system analogous in principle to that described for sampling 
coal. 

It is not always necessary to resort to such a complicated 
operation in case of a permanent gas; samples taken from 
the general current by means of an ordinary aspirator or an 
oil-aspirator (page 132) will usually do if drawn at a sufficient 
distance from the fire. If the gases have passed through a 
long flue, especially one with several bends, they are suffi- 
ciently mixed, and may be considered as a homogeneous gas. 
We must remember, however, that as we recede from the 
fire the infiltration of air, if not prevented, becomes greater. 
In careful experiments, the method to be described of frac- 
tionating a large volume is preferable. 

GAS SAMPLER. 

In principle the apparatus consists of a falling-water 
aspirator, and a second mercury aspirator drawing a small 
fraction of the gases from the current of the first in a con- 
stant regular manner and keeping it in a mercury gas-holder, 
A (Fig. 28), which is a strong glass flask of 3 litres capacity, 
holding about 40 kilograms (88 lbs.) of mercury. The 
gas-holder is connected by the tube a with the tube c for 
sampling the gas, the flask A and its accessories acting as 
a Mariotte flask. It is closed at the top by a stopper 
hollowed out conically below and having holes for two 
tubes, a and b. This hollowing is to permit filling without 



GAS SAM FLEE. 



129 



any air-bubbles. The tubes a and b have glass stop-cocks, 
but the one in a may be omitted. The manometric tube c 
shows the pressure. Tube d, like c, passes through a rubber 
stopper, closing the horizontal tubulature of the gas-holder. 




;^ 






'^ 



i/t 



■MM 



Fig. 28. — Gas Sampler. 



fl 
Fig. 29. — Sampler Tube. 



This tube can be rotated in the stopper to the position shown, 
or to one 180° from such position. The flask is graduated on 
the side into millimetres. Tube a fits the hole of the stopper 
tightly, and can be moved up or down as desired to suit the 
quantity of gas in the flask. All joints are covered with 
paraffin, tube a being greased to facilitate movement. 

Fig. 29 shows the gas sampling tube. It consists of a 
platinum cylinder, rs, 10 millimetres (0.4 inch) diameter and 
700 millimetres (27.5 inches) long, having a longitudinal slot 
of several centimetres length. The end r is closed with a 



130 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

platinum cap; the end s is soldered to a copper tube, j/, pass- 
ing into a Liebig condenser having two tubes, oo\ for the 
water. In most cases the platinum tube may be replaced 
without trouble by one of copper, or even iron, the platinum 
being necessary only when the gases are drawn at a tempera- 
perature high enough to cause oxidation of the other metals. 
With iron, or copper a portion of the oxygen is removed in 
the passage through the tube. 

The tube ry is open at/, and has a side tube Ji. Aspira- 
tion is carried on through the opening in the platinum tube. 
A movable rod, ik, carrying a platinum scraper is attached 
to one end of the tube, and moves in the slot to clean it, as 
occasion requires, from soot, etc. The disk/) serves to hold the 
cement used in fastening it to the stack or chimney, and pre- 
vents ingress of external air. The rod mn passes through a 
caoutchouc bearing fastened between the disks/ and q. 

Fig. 28 represents a front view of the apparatus. Fig. 30 
represents a side view in elevation. The tube ry is intro- 
duced through an opening made for the purpose in the 
masonry, the pait rs being exposed inside. The end y, is 
connected with a lead pipe, v, by a rubber tube ; this pipe is 
soldered to another one, yz. On opening the cock j, water 
flows from a reservoir and empties at z. Suction in yrs 
should amount to several millimetres of mercury, and is regu- 
lated by the cocks j/ and x controlling the water-flow, and also 
by the length oi yz. The gas drawn in by yux may be meas- 
ured by collecting it at z, and should amount to 4 or 5 litres 
(25 to 30 cubic inches) per minute. 

The gas-holder is supported by a piece of sheet iron with 
upturned edges forming a shelf. Any mercury spattered 
over or spilled is thus easily collected. The mercury tank is 
supported from the w^all of the chimney in such position as to 
facilitate refilling the flask through a siphon. The tubes dd' 
serve to feed the condenser. 

While the current is passing through yr a small quantity 



GAS SAMPLER. 



131 



IS drawn out by the tube //, and this should be so regulated 
by the cock d that only from ^-^ to -^^-^ is collected. 

Whenever the level of the mercury lowers, it shows a 




7t> 

Fig. 30. — Gas Sampler. 

clogging in the slot, and it should be cleaned by moving the 
rod. This always indicates when cleaning is necessary, and 
it sometimes keeps clean for hours. 

When a sufficient sample has been obtained turn up the 
tube dj and then the gas-holder can be carried away. 

The method recommended by the American Society of 
Mechanical Engineers is to have a *'box or block of gal- 
vanized sheet iron equal in thickness to one course of brick,'* 
and secure in it a series of J-inch gas-pipes, all alike at the 
ends and of equal lengths, in such manner that the open ends 
may be evenly distributed over the area of the flue A (Fig. 
32), and their other open ends enclosed in the receiver B. 



132 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



A simpler arrangement than Scheurer-Kestner's is the 
one recommended by Col. David P. Jones in his paper 
before the American Society of Naval Engineers, vol. X. 

page 135. 

The sampler is a large, wide-necked glass bottle (Fig. 30^), 
closed with a cork having two glass tubes, 
one just entering the bottle, the other 
reaching nearly to the bottom. One of 
these tubes is connected with an iron pipe 
leading to the flue and extending well into 
it. The other tube is connected with any 
kind of an aspirator which works steadily. 
A water-jet exhaust, an engine-driven ex- 
haust, or any similar kind will do. If not 
convenient to use an exhaust, the bottle 
may be filled with mercury and by mak- 
ing a siphon with the rubber tube attached 
to the long glass tube, the bottle can be 
gradually emptied of mercury and the 
gases to be sampled drawn in. If mer- 
cury cannot be had, water will do, but 
the result will not be as reliable since the 
water may dissolve some of the constitu- 
ents of the gas. 

The size of the bottle may be 
adapted to the quantity of gas aspirated, and by means 
of proper stop- or pinch-cocks adjusted to work slow 
or fast. 

Used in conjunction with the arrangement figured on page 
134 this apparatus forms a very simple and satisfactory 
sampler. One great advantage in favor of this arrangement 
is the fact that it is easily made, all the portions of it being; 
found in nearly every shop. 




Fig. 30a. — Jones Gas 
Sampler. 



GAS SAMPLER. 



13^ 




Fig. 31. — Oil Aspirator. 



If the flue-gases be drawn off from the receiver B hy 
four tubes, CC, into a mixing-box, 
D, beneath, a good mixture can be 
obtained. Two such samplers, one 
above the other, a foot apart, in the 
same flue will furnish samples of 
gases which show the same compo- 
sition by analysis. 

The oil gas holder (Fig. 31) con- 
sists of a bottle tubulated at the 
bottom and connected with the sup- 
ply of gas at the upper opening. It 
may contain some 10 litres (600 
cubic inches), and is filled with 
water having on it a layer of lO 
centimetres (4 inches) of oil. The 
water running out from the tubu- 
lature at the bottom draws the gas 
in at the top. The stopper at the top has two openings, 
through one of which passes a funnel-tube, through which 
water may be poured to expel the gas when portions of it 
are needed. The gas then passes out by the same tube 
through which it was drawn into the bottle. 

With all kinds of aspirators or gas holders especial care 
must be taken to prevent entrance of air into the flue after 
leaving the fire, since the correct analysis will show not only 
the quantity of unburnt gases, but also the excess of air, and 
any mixture of outside air will vitiate the result and cause 
faulty deductions as to the working of the fire; and conse- 
quently the waste calories. 

To prevent this, all joints in the masonry must be exam- 
ined and repaired if necessary. In case of dampers, which 
must be used, the bearings can be made in stufling-boxes, as. 
recommended by Burnet. Generally, the gas can be sampled 
before it arrives at a damper, as the course of the boiler-flue 



1 34 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



is usually sufficient to cause a thorough mixing of the gases. 
In case there are several dampers, the first one may be dis- 
pensed with for the time being. 

When the gases are taken quite near the fire, they must be 
drawn very slowly in order to gradually cool them down and 




^vx^-^ 




Fig. 32, 

avoid dissociation. In this case a stoneware tube may be 
used for suction. If this precaution is neglected the gases 
collected may be entirely different from those passing off at 
the chimney. Metal tubes are inadmissible, since they 
abstract oxygen, and hence cause a change in composition. 



ANALYSIS OF THE GASES. 



The collected gases contain nitrogen, oxygen, carbonic 
acid, carbonic oxide, hydrocarbons, and occasionally free 
hydrogen. To determine all these a eudiometric method 



GAS SAMPLER. 



135 



must be used ; but usually only the oxygen, carbonic oxide, 
and carbonic acid are required. In normal combustion with 
sufficient air the quantity of hydrocarbons is very trifling, and 
need not be considered. This occurs usually with a supply 
of 15 cubic metres of air per kilogram (240 cubic feet per 
pound) of coal, and should produce a waste gas containing 10 
to 14 per cent of carbonic acid, in which case the unburnt 
hydrocarbons amount to less than i per cent. 

The Orsat apparatus or its modifications may be used to 
determine the oxygen, carbonic acid, and carbonic oxide. By 
using Winckler's modification the hydrocarbons may be deter- 
mined. For exact analyses of the gases the Hempel apparatus 
may be used. For general work, however, the Orsat appa- 
ratus or the Orsat-Muencke is the best and most easily 
transported and handled. Directions for using this apparatus 
need not be given here, as they can be found in all works on 
gas analysis, or can be had of the dealers. 

The following table gives analyses made by Scheurer- 
Kestner of waste gases from Ronchamp coal. The gases for 
examination were collected by means of the apparatus described 
above (pp. 128 ^/ seq.) and shows the average for a whole 
dav's run. 





Percentage Composition of the Gases. 






a 

a 
x: 
U 

"o 


bo 







■a 

< 


1 


C 

>, 

X 




4J 

•a 
>< 



5 
1 

U 


Hydrocarbons. 




c 

< 




c 

■a 
X 


c 

V - 

[1. 


6.60 
10.47 
13-32 
17.61 
20.94 
26.18 
42. 84 

53-78 


80.38 
80.60 
80.66 
81.52 
80.23 
80.34 
79.76 
79-86 


14.87 
14.16 
14.63 
13-34 

13-43 

12.89 

10.87 

8..3 


1. 41 

2.18 
2.80 

3-77 
4.42 

5-53 
8.99 

11-35 


0.84 
0.97 
0.86 
0.86 
0.24 
0.24 
0.24 
0.24 


0.98 
0.49 
0.46 
0.32 
0.28 
0.19 
0.04 


1-35 
I. II 
0.56 
0.91 
1. 41 
0.96 
0.19 
0.52 


Lbs. 
8.19 
9.625 
9-625 
8.19 
8.19 
4.71 
18.94 
3-41 


Lbs. 
15-4 
30.8 

15.4 
15-4 
30.8 

15-4 
15-4 
13-2 


4 
3' 

2' 
10' 



136 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



The following table gives some analyses by Bunte of gas 
samples from coal burnt in his experimental apparatus at 
Munich : 





Mm. and 














Max. 


CO, 


CO 


H 





N 




of Air. 












Coal from the Ruhr 




10.26 


0.53 

1-94 
0.48 
1.22 


O.OI 


10.00 


79-20 
78.64 
79-30 
79.28 
80.14 


Do. 




16.45 

13.40 

11-45 

8.15 


1-45 
0.30 
0.78 

O.OI 


1.52 

6.52 

7.27 

11.60 


Do. 




Do. 




Do. (grate more open). 





O.IO 


Do. Do. 




6.12 


0.89 


O.IO 


14.21 


78.68 


Coal from Saarbruck: Koenig.. 


S Min. " 
■ Max. 


15-12 


1.09 


1.02 


2.64 


80.13 


7.07 


0.18 


0.00 


12.57 


80.25 


*' " Tr^mosna: Bohemia 


j Min. 
■ Max. 


13-78 


4.69 


0.16 


1. 10 


80.27 




7-94 


0.03 


0.09 


11.03 


80.91 


" " Hausham: Bavaria. 


Min. 
] Max. 


10.48 


0.07 


0.19 


9.28 


79.98 




5.71 


0.14 


0.08 


14.86 


79.21 


" " Miesbach: Bavaria. 


Min. 
Max. 


11.46 


0.07 


0.07 


8.66 


79-74 




5 42 


0.03 


0.02 


I5-00 


79-53 


*' *' Bohemia 


\ Min. 
] Max. 


17.48 
12.20 


I. 21 


0.06 
0.30 


3-13 

7-87 


78.12 




? 


" " the Ruhr : General 


j Min. 
/ Max. 


16.45 


1.94 


1-45 


1.52 


78.64 


Erbstolln 


3 95 


0.06 


0.00 


16.41 


79-58 


" the Ruhr : Gelsen- 


J Min. 
1 Max. 
j Min. 
1 Max. 
j Min. 
\ Max. 


10.46 


O.I I 


O.II 


8.58 


80.74 


kirchen 


5.44 
10.73 


0. 12 


0. 10 


14.15 
7.36 


80.19 
81.46 


« ** " Saarbruck : Saint- 


0.15 


0.30 


Insfbert. ><....... 


7.48 
13-30 


0.07 
0.61 


0. lO 


II. 91 
4-13 


80.44 
81.63 


•• " Saarbruck : Mittel- 


0.33 


bexbach 


8.44 


0.19 


0.16 


10.58 


80.6s 


" '• Saarbruck : Heinitz 


j Min. 
\ Max. 


14.62 
6.49 


2 07 
0.07 


1. 00 
0.06 


2.07 
12.70 


80.24 
80.68 


" ** Saarbruck: mixed.. 


j Min. 
/ Max. 


10.22 


0.22 


0.07 


8-57 


80.92 




8.21 


0.04 


0.02 


10.64 


81.09 


" '• Bohemia 


j Min. 
■j Max. 


15-50 

8.48 


0.74 
0.08 


0.33 

0.07 


1.67 
9.69 


81.66 




81.68 


«( (( 


j Min. 
\ Max. 


9.61 
7.00 


0.16 
O.II 


0.08 
0.05 


9-47 
12.70 


80.68 




80.14 


" " Saxony 


j Min. 
■j Max. 


13-S0 
7.60 


0.33 
0.16 


0.30 
0.09 


4-36 
11.53 


81.21 




80.62 


" •• Silesia 


j Min. 
"j Max. 


II. 4 

8.07 


15 
O.IO 


0.04 
0.09 


7.45 
10.73 


81.22 




81.01 


" *' Bavaria : Peissen- 


j Min. 
\ Max. 
j Min. 
{ Max. 


13.96 


1.46 


0.79 


2-93 


80.86 


berfif 


7-85 

14.91 

6.36 


0.07 

1.04 

0.16 


0.13 

0.60 
0.23 


10.57 

2.92 

13.15 


81.38 

80.53 
80.10 


^^'s • 

Lignite from Bohemia 


Coke from Saarbruck 


j Min. 
]Max. 


14.87 
8.01 


0.13 
0.03 


0.09 
0.00 


4.16 
10.87 


80.75 
81.09 



The data in the above table show that when air to the 
amount of 15 cubic metres and over per kilogram (200 cubic 



CALCULATIOy OF THE VOLUME FROM A.N A LYSIS. 13/ 

feet per pound) is used, corresponding to a maximum of 14 
per cent of carbonic acid in the waste gases, the loss in hydro- 
gen is very small. With 12 per cent of carbonic acid the 
hydrogen loss amounts to only a few thousandths. 



CALCULATION OF THE VOLUME FROM ANALYSIS. 

To calculate this volume, determine the weight of carbon 
in a unit of volume, and knowing the weight of carbon fur- 
nished by the coal, determine the volume corresponding to 
the unit of weight. The unit of volume for the gas is the 
cubic metre, and the unit of weight, the kilogram. 

Carbon exists in the waste gases as carbonic acid, carbonic 
oxide, and hydrocarbons; when we do not know the compo- 
sition of the hydrocarbons, we consider the carbon and hydro- 
gen as free, and that the carbon is in the state of vapor. 

To determine the weight of carbon contained in these 
different gases, reduce their volumes to kilograms, and by 
means of their molecular (or equivalent) weights and that of 
carbon make the calculation. 

I litre of CO2 at 0° and 760 mm. weighs 1.966 grams. 
I " '' CO " '' " '' '* '' 1. 251 ** 

I '* '' C vapor *' '' " 1.072 

Molecular weight of carbon 12 

'' '' CO, 44 

'' '' CO 28 



The weight of a volume v of carbonic acid is z/ X 1.966, 
and as 44 of carbonic acid contain 12 of carbon, then the 
weight of carbon would be as 44 : 12 or as 1 1 : 3. Then 



V X 1.966 X 3 . 
^ -^ = 0.536Z;. 



138 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

The weight of carbonic oxide of volume v is 1.2512^', and 
as 28 of carbonic oxide contains 12 of carbon, the ratio be- 
comes 28: 12 = 7:3. We then have 

= 0.5362^. 

7 

The weight of a volume of carbon vapor is v" X 1.072. 

To calculate the weight of carbon in a cubic metre of gas. 
multiply the added volumes of CO, and CO by the coefficient 
0.536. Multiply the volume of carbon vapor by 1.072, and 
add this product to that obtained above. The sum is the 
weight of carbon per cubic metre, 

C — 0.536(2^ + v) + 1.0722/". 

If the gas contains, per cubic metre, 60 litres of carbonic 
acid, 10 of carbonic oxide, and i of carbon vapor, we will 
have 

c = 0.536(60 + 10) + 1.072 X I — 38.592 grams carbon. 

From the ratio of carbon of the coal consumed and that in 
the gas the volume of combustion gases is deduced. 

To calculate this, subtract the carbon of the cinders from 
that of the original coal. If the coal contains 81 per cent 
carbon and leaves 6 percent of cinders containing 10 percent 
of carbon, then the amount of carbon burnt will be 

81 — (o.io X 6.0) = 81 — 0.6 = 80.4. 

We then have 

38.592 : 1000 = 804: 20.830 litres. 

A kilogram of coal produces, then, 20.83 cubic metres of gas 
at 0° and 760 mm. 

The general formula is 

C-c 



V = 



{v -\- v')o.^-^6 -\- 1.0722;'" 



CALCULATION OF THE VOLUME FROM ANALYSIS, 1 39 

in which 

y = volume of waste gases at o° and 760 mm. in cubic metres; 
7^ z= " '' CO3 in litres per cubic metre of gases; 

-.' <( **CO'' *^ *' '* '* '* *' 

2^''= '' '* carbon vapor per cubic metre of gases ; 

(7 = weight of carbon in grams, contained in i kilogram of 

coal; 
c = weight of carbon in grams, contained in cinders from i 

kilogram of coal. 

Note. — The above calculation in English units would be as follows: 

Weight of I cubic foot of carbonic acid o. 12274 lb. 

*' " I " " " " oxide 0.07811 " 

" «t J «' •« .i carbon vapor 0.06693 ** 

V X 0.12274 X 3 

= 0.03352/. 



v' X 0.0781 1 X 3 

■ = 0.0335Z/ . 

7 

0.066932/' = weight of carbon in vapor. 
C =: 0.0335(2/ -f- ^') + 0-066932/". 

1000 cubic feet of gases having 60 cubic feet of COa , 10 cubic feet of CO 
and I cubic foot of C vapor would give 

C = 0.0335(60 -f 10) + 0.06693 X I = 2.412 lbs. carbon. 

I pound of coal has 80.4 per cent carbon; then 

2.412 : 1000 =0.804 : 333i cubic feet of gases produced from i lb. of coaL 

The general formula is 

v = 



00335(2/ -f- 2/') -|- 0.066932/"' 

in which 

F = volume in cubic feet of gases produced; 

V = " of CO2 in cubic feet per 1000 cubic feet; 

v' = " " CO " " " " 

v" = " " carbon vapor in cubic feet per 1000 cubic feet; 

C = weight of carbon in coal in thousandths of a pound; 

c — " " " " cinders per pound of coal in thousandths. 



340 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

CALCULATION OF VOLUME OF AIR SUPPLIED. 

The volume of combustion-gases just determined is less 
than that of the air supplied. Oxygen in forming carbonic 
acid produces a volume equal to itself; hence there is no 
change. 

C + O, = CO, 

2 vols. 2 vols. 

Oxygen in forming carbonic oxide produces twice the 
volume. 

C + O = CO 

I vol. 2 vols. 

Hence there is an increase in volume. 

Carbon vapor and hydrogen as free gases or as hydro- 
carbons increase the volume but slightly. In forming sul- 
phurous acid with sulphur there is no change of volume. 

S + 0, = SO, 

2 vols. 2 vols. 

Another slight cause of increase is setting free the nitrogen 
of the coal ; but this is inappreciable. i per cent of nitrogen 
forms only o. i per cent of the entire volume of gases formed. 

It might be said that, excepting the oxygen changing to 
water and disappearing by condensation, all the modifications 
of gaseous volume may be neglected, the increase being more 
than compensated by the loss due to oxygen. This elimina- 
tion of oxygen must be allowed for, however. 

A coal containing 4 per cent of hj^drogen requires eight 
times such weight to form water, or 40 grams of hydrogen 
need 320 grams of oxygen. i litre of oxygen weighs 1.430 
grams, then 320 grams measure ^^^^ =^ 223.7 litres (7.9 cubic 
feet). (Or i lb. of such coal would need 3.6 cubic feet of 
oxygen.) 

These 223 litres, must be added to the volume of the 
waste gases produced by the coal to obtain the original 



CALCULATION OF VOLUME OF AIR SUPPLIED. I4I 

volume of air introduced. A coal containing 5 per cent of 
hydrogen would use 279 litres. 

The volume of oxygen needed for various percentages of 
hydrogen is as follows : 

Per kilo of coal. Per lb. of coal. 

\(fo hydrogen uses of oxygen 55.9 litres, 0.9 cubic feet. 

2 '' " *' 112 *' 1.8 '' 

3 '<■ " " 168 '' 2, J '' " 

4 c, i( a 223 *' 3.6 '' 

5 '' '' " 279 '' 4.5 '' '' 

Calling H the per cent of hydrogen, the formula given 
above becomes 

'^' - {v + v')o.s63+ 1.071^/^^ + 55.9 H, 
or 

C-c' 

y = 7 i TTH Z2 77 + O.Q H. 

o.0335(z/+z/) + o.o6693^'^' ' ^ 

To make this applicable to normal air saturated with 
moisture at 0° C. and 760 mm. (32° F. and 29.922 inches) 
containing 0.4 per cent of CO^, we must divide by 99.12, 
the composition of air being: 

Nitrogen 78-35 

Oxygen 20. 77 

Water , ,... 0.84 



^ , . ., , 0.88 

Carbonic acid , 0.04 



100.00 
And 100 — 0.88 = 99. 12. The formula then becomes 

C-c' 

\v 
or 



^" - ' 4- 2/O0.567 + \,Q%Q(iv" + 5 5-9 H, 



^ ' ~ 0.0337(2/ + v') + o.o6752z/'^ + °'^ ^- 



14- CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

CALCULATION OF WEIGHT OF WASTE GASES FROM 
ANALYSIS.* 

Two methods of calculating from the analysis by volume 
of the dry chimney gases the number of pounds of dry chim- 
ney gases per pound of carbon, or the weight of air supplied 
per pound of carbon, have been given by different writers. 
These may be expressed in the shape of formulae as follows: 

/AX -p A A AT iiCO,+ 80 + 7(0+N) 

(A) Pounds dry gas per pound C = —^ ■ • 

^ y^ P P 3(CO,+ CO) 

(B) Pounds air per pound C = 5.8 ^^^^^+^^+ -^. 

Formula A may be derived from the method of computa- 
tion given in Mr. R. S. Hale's paper on " Flue Gas Anal- 
yses," Transactions A. S. M. E., vol. XVIII. p. 901, and 
formula B from the method given in Peabody and Miller's 
Treatise on Steam-boilers. Both are based on the principle 
that the density, relatively to hydrogen, of an elementary gas 
(O and N) is proportional to its atomic weight, and that of a 
compound gas (CO and CO^) to one half its molecular weight. 
Both formulae are very nearly accurate when pure carbon is 
the fuel burned ; but formula B is inaccurate when the fuel 
contains hydrogen, for the reason that that portion of the 
oxygen of the air-supply which is required to burn the 
hydrogen is contained in the chimney gas as H^O, and does 
not appear in the analysis of the dry gas. 

The following calculations of a supposed case of combus- 
tion of hydrogenous fuel illustrates the accuracy of formula A 
and the inaccuracy of formula B : Assume that the coal has 
the following analysis : C, 66.50; H, 4. 55; O, 8.40; N, i.oo; 
water, 10.00; ash and sulphur, 9.55; total, 100. Assume 

* William Kent in Report of Committee on Boiler-tests, A. S. M. E., 

1897. 



CALCULATION OF WEIGHT OF WASTE GASES. 1 43 

also that one tenth of the C is burned to CO, and nine tenths 
to CO^; that the air supply is 20 per cent in excess of that 
required for this combustion ; that the air contains one per 
cent by weight of moisture ; and that the S in the coal may 
be considered as part of the ash. We then have the follow- 
ing synthesis of results of the combustion of 100 pounds of 
coal: 



CO^ CO HoO 



O from N = Total 

Air. O X II. Air. 

59.85 lbs. C to CO2 X 2f 159-60 534-31 693.91 219.45 

6.65 " C to CO X li 8.87 29.70 38.57 15.52 

3,50 " H to H2O X 8 28.00 93.74 121.74 31-50 



196.47 657.75 854.22 



1.05 " H to H2O 
8.40 " H to H2O 



9-45 



10.00 " Water 10.00 

1. 00 " N 1. 00 

9.55 " Ash and S 



100.00 

Excess of air 20 per cent. 39-29 131.55 170. 



1025.06 

Moisture in air I per cent 10.25 



Total wt. of gases, 1125.67 = 39.29 790.30 219.45 15.52 61.20 

Total dry gases, 1064.56 

O N CO2 CO 

Total dry gases, by weight, ^ 3.69 74.24 20.61 1.546 

Total dry gases, by volume, % 3.508 80.656 14.252 1.584....* 

Total gases 1125.76 -fash and S 9.55 = 1135.31 total products. 

Total air 1025.06 -|- moisture in air 10.25 + coal 100 = 1135.31. 

Dry gas per pound coal 10.6456; per pound carbon = 10.6456 h- 665 = 16.008, 

Dry air per pound coal 10.2506; per pound carbon = 10.2506 ~ 665 = 15.414. 

Computation of the weight of dry gas and of air per pound C: 

Formula A : 

_.. . ^ 14.252X11 + 3.508X8 + 82.240X7 ^ o 

Dry gas per pound C = -^—^ , — , —^ — = 16.008 pounds. 

3(14.252 + 1.584) 

Formula B : 

,^ ^ 2(14.252 + 3.508) + 1.584 

Air per pound C - 5.8 ^ — ^-^+ — '-^ — ^-^ = 13.589 pounds. 

I4.252 + I.584 O O ^ i' 

The error in the last result is 15.414 — 13.589 == 1.825 pounds. 



144 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS, 

Prof. Jacobus recommends the use of the formula 

7N 
Pounds of air per pound C = .^^ — , ^,^x -^ 0.77 ; 
^ ^ 3(CO, + C0) ^^' 

and in the case given above, where the actual quantity used 
was 15.414 per cent, his calculated one is 15.434 per cent, — 
practically the same, and as near as errors of analysis would 
allow a calculated result. 



VOLUME OF WASTE GASES. 

The fan-wheel anemometer is an instrument to measure 
the force or rapidity of a current of gas. It consists of a 
fan-wheel rotated by the moving gas, and which transmits 
such motion to an index showing the number of revolutions. 
Burnat used this apparatus to measure the quantity of air 
passing in under the grate of steam-boilers. 

The coefficient to be used in calculating the flow is differ- 
ent for each machine, and must be determined by actual 
experiment. Burnat's formula, 

V — o. 120 + o. 130;?, 

means that the velocity is found by multiplying the number 
of revolutions per second by 0.130 and adding 0.120 to the 
product. 

To obtain satisfactory results with the anemometer, it 
must be placed in the axis of a perfect cylinder at the depth 
of a metre, as the indications vary with the position in the 
flue. The formula needs correction for temperature, but the 
correction of the apparatus much exceeds this. Burnat com- 
pared his results with those obtained from a formula depend- 
ing on the depression if under the grate (see page 147), and 
found differences of not more than 5 per cent. 



FLE T CHER'S A NEMO ME TER. 



145 



FLETCHER'S ANEMOMETER. 

Fletcher's anemometer (Fig. 35) is used in England to 
ascertain the speed of flow in chimneys and flues. In its 
simplified form it is quite serviceable. It is based on the 
movement of a column of ether in a U-tube. 

The ends of the glass tubes a, b are placed in the flue a 
little less than one sixth of its diameter. The straight end a 





should be parallel to the direction of the current, the end b 
being at right angles to this. Hunter proposed bending 
both ends in opposite directions, to obviate the error caused 
if the tubes were not so placed. These tubes communicate 
with the ether tube cd. The draught across the tubes causes 
the ether to rise in a b}^ aspiration and to fall in b by pres- 
sure. The difference of level is read, and then the tubes are 
turned around 180°, so as to reverse their positions, and the 
difference of level read again. The sum of the two differ- 
ences is called the anemometer reading, and by means of 
tables the velocity of the current is ascertained. 

The same trouble is common to all anemometer methods. 
The flue feeding the fire receives only the air passing in 



146 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



under the grate. Whatever passes in by the doors or 
through cracks escapes accounting. On account 
of this it is certain that the calculations based on 
anemometer readings are lower than the actual 
air supply. 

segur's differential gauge. 
This gauge (Fig. 34) consists of a U-tubeof 
i-inch glass, surmounted by two chambers of 2\ 
inches diameter. Two non-miscible liquids of 
different colors, usually alcohol and paraffin oil, 
are put into the two arms, one occupying the 
portion AB, the other the portion BCD, The 
movement of the line of demarcation is pro- 
\ portional to the difference in area of the chambers 
and the tube adjoining. A movement of 2 
inches in the column represents J-inch difference 
pressure or draft. 




HIRN S METHOD. 

The apparatus used by Burnat as a check on his own 
calculations was devised by Hirn, and is based on the formula 
of the rate of flow of compressed gases from a reservoir, 
friction being neglected. The coefficient of reduction used 
is 0.9, the one given by Dubuisson in his treatise on hydraulics. 

The main difficulty consists in measuring the difTerence of 
pressure of the atmosphere in the ash pit and that outside, 
for the depression in the flues in some cases does not exceed 
a few millimetres of water. Hirn's apparatus removes this 
difficulty. 

Burnat describes it as follows : 

When making a test the doors of the ash pit are removed 
and replaced by a piece of sheet iron, A (Fig. 37), which com- 
pletely shuts out all access of air except through the opening 
in the middle, to which is fitted the pipe CD^ 13.8 inches 



HIRM'S METHOD. 



147 



•diameter and 59 inches long. A tube leads from the front 
to the apparatus E, devised by Hirn, placed on a table or 
against the boiler-wall. This apparatus consists of a little 
-gas holder whose upper surface is just one decimeter (3.9 




Fig. 35. 

inches) on a side. Inside this and above the water level the 
tube A opens. The bell dips into a vessel of water and is 
suspended from a balance arm. 

The balance being in equilibrium when the atmospheric 
pressure acts on both sides of the bell, if the interior is con- 
nected with the ash-pit the weight needed to restore equili- 
brium will give a measure of the difference in pressure. The 
weight of half a gram {j .J grains) represents one-twentieth 
millimetre (0.002 inch) of water. 

The formula adopted by Hirn is 



yr c- / ^ X 0.76(1 + 0.0037/) 
F = 5 X O.9A / 2g-^ r> -^' 

^Y 0.0013^ 



in which 



J7=: volume of air introduced under the grate in cubic 

metres ; 
^ = section in square metre of pipe-opening leading air to 

the ash-pit ; 
0.9 = coefficient of reduction; 



147^ 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



h = difference of pressure expressed in height of water; 
B = barometric pressure in the room ; 
/ = temperature of the room ; 
£■ = acceleration of gravity = 9.8088 metres. 



KENT'S GAUGE. 



The accompanying sketch represents a very sensitive and 
accurate draft-gauge recently constructed by Mr. William 
Kent. A light cylindrical tin can y^, 5 inches diameter and 6 




Fig. 35«. — Kent's Gauge. 



inches high, is inverted and suspended inside of a can B, 6 
inches diameter, 6 inches high, by means of a long helical 
spring. A ^-inch tube is placed inside of the larger can, with 



KENT'S GAUGE. I47<^ 

one end just below the level of the upper edge, while the 
other end passes through a hole cut in the side of the can, 
close to the bottom. The can is filled with water to within 
about half an inch of the top, and the inner can is suspended 
by the spring so that its lower edge dips into the water. 

The small tube being open at both ends, the air enclosed 
in the can A is at atmospheric pressure, and the spring is ex- 
tended by the weight of the can. The end of the tube which 
projects from the bottom of the can being now connected by 
means of a rubber tube with a tube leading into the flue, or 
other chamber, whose draft or suction is to be measured, 
air is drawn out of the can A until the pressure of the remain- 
ing air is the same as that of the flue. The external atmos- 
phere pressing on the top of the can A causes it to sink deeper 
in the water, extending the spring until its increased tension 
just balances the difference of the opposing vertical pressures 
of the air inside and outside of the can. The product of this 
difference in pressure, expressed as a decimal fraction of a 
pound per square inch, multiplied by the internal area of the 
can in square inches, equals the tension of the spring (above 
that due to the weight of the can) in pounds or fraction of a 
pound. The extension of a helical spring being proportional 
to the force applied, the distance travelled downward by the 
can A measures the force of suction, that is, the draft. The 
movement of the can may conveniently be measured by hav- 
ing a celluloid scale graduated to fiftieths of an inch fastened 
to the side of the can A^ the can carrying an index. 

To reduce the readings of the scale to their equivalents in 
inches of water column, as read on the ordinary U-tube 
gauge, we have the following formula : 

Let 

P ■— force in pounds required to stretch the string i inch; 

R = elongation of the spring in inches; 



147^ CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

A = area of the inner can in square inches; 

d= difference in pressure or force of the draft in pounds 
per square inch; 

£) = difference in pressure in inches of water = 2y.yid. 



AD 
EP= Ad= = o.osCiAD ; 

27.71 ^ 



^^ 2y.yi£P 



E = 



A 
o.02>6iAD 



P 



The last equation shows that for a constant force of draft 
the elongation of the spring of the movement of the can may 
be increased by increasing the area of the can or by decreas- 
ing the strength of the spring. 

Applying the above formulae, the movement of the can 
corresponding to a draft of i inch of water column, the 
can A having a diameter of 5 inches = 19.63 inches area, 
and the spring of such a strength that o. i pound elongates 
it I inch. Here P—q.\\ A — 19.63 ; D — \. 



0.0361 X 19-63 . , 

= 7.0Q mches. 

0.1 ' ^ 



That is, the instrument multiplies the readings of the U 
tube 7.09 times. The precision of the instrument is, how- 
ever, far greater than this figure would indicate ; for in the 
U tube it is exceedingly difficult to read with precision the 
difference in height of the two menisci, while with this ap- 
paratus readings in the scale may easily be made to -^-^ inch, 



\ 



DA S YME TER. 1 47^ 

which, with the multiplication of 7, is equivalent to 3^ of an 
inch of water column. The instrument may also be cali- 
brated by directly comparing its readings with those of an 
ordinary U-tube gauge. 

VOLUME BY AUTOMATIC APPARATUS. 

DASYMETER. 

Siegert and Durr "^ devised an apparatus called the 
Dasymeter, which has been introduced in several large works 
in Europe, where it gives satisfaction. 

It consists of a balance enclosed in a cast-iron box with 
a glass side (Fig. 36). At one end of the beam is a very 




Fig. 36. — Dasymeter. 

light glass balloon holding 2 to 3 litres, sealed by fusion. 
The other end carries a weight balancing the balloon. This 
weight is formed of a U-tube, //, containing mercury, and is 
open at one end; the other end is expanded into a bulb con- 
taining air, which is submitted to the variations of pressure 
and temperature through the mercury. If the pressure of 
the air increases or diminishes, the mercury rises or falls, and 
increases or diminishes the weight on the lever. Suppose an 

* Oesterreichische Zeitschrift flir B.- und H.-Wesen, xvi. p. 291. 



148 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

increase of pressure and a lowering of temperature which 
would diminish the density of the air one half. A corres- 
ponding quantity of mercury passes into the arm of the tube, 
and the original compensating weight is diminished by that 
amount. A graduated index shows the variations of weight, 
and hence the variations of density in the gases. An inge- 
nious arrangement allows regulation by rotating the U-tube 
on the axis pn. The tube is turned slowly around till 
adjusted, thus changing the length of the lever-arm. 

A difference of I per cent of carbonic acid causes a differ- 
ence in weight of 20 milligrams. One litre of air at 0° and 
760 millimetres weighs 1294 milligrams; i litre of carbonic 
acid weighs 1967 milligrams ; the difference is 673 milligrams. 
If the gas contains i per cent of CO,, each litre increases 6.73 
milligrams in weight; and as the balloon contains 3 litres, it 
supports an external pressure of more than 3 X 6.73 = 20.19 
milligrams (0.3 11 grains). 

To prevent action of sulphurous acid the bearings are 
made of sapphire, onyx, bloodstone, etc., and metallic parts of 
phosphor-bronze. 

To set up the dasymeter, connect pipe c with the boiler- 
flue before the damper; the tube pleads to the chimney. By 
this means a current of gas passes through the box, and shows 
at any time the percentage of carbonic acid. Siegert gives 
the following results obtained with it, and the corresponding 
results by analysis : 

j Dasymeter, 13.0, 13.0, 12.0, 6.25, 2.2, 16.3, 7.5, 12.5 
"I Analysis, 13.0, 12.7, 12.2, 6.00, 2.0, 16.0, 8.0, 13.0 

ECONOMETER. 

H. Arndt has invented what he calls the " Econometer"^ 
(Fig. 37), which is on a similar principle.* It consists of a 
tight cast-iron shell, NN, containing a gas-balance. A pipe, 

* Zeitschrift des Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure, xxxvii. p. 801. 



ECONOMETER. 



149 



v\ 0.4 inch in diameter leads to the inside of the flue before the 
damper; a second pipe, v" , communicates with the interior of 
the same flue beyond the damper. In the interior, the tube i' 
is connected to the upright pipe /, which leads the gas to bell 
e' , and the tube i" to the tubulure g, i' and i" are of rubber. 




Fig. 37. — EcONOMETER. 

The balance is very sensitive, the beam carrying at one 
end the gas-holder e , open below and containing about 30 
cubic inches, and at the other end a second holder of similar 
size and weight as the first. Attached to the bottom of this 
one is a pan to hold the balancing weights. 

The tube y conducts the gas to the balloon e' , which, open 
below, is freely movable in the cylinder g^ by which it pro- 
duces suction in the tube i" . 

Carbonic acid being heavier than common air (1.96 to 
1.29) as well as the other associated gases, it follows that the 
density of the gases passing through the tubes depends on the 
carbonic acid content. The scale is divided so that each 
division shows one per cent of CO^ in the gases. 



ISO 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



GAS-COMPOSIMETER. 



The gas-composimeter of Uehling is an apparatus for 
automatically and continuously determining the quantity of 
carbonic acid contained in waste gases. 

It is based on the laws governing the flow of gas through 
small apertures. 




Fig. 38. 

If two such apertures, A and B (Fig. 38), form respectively 
the inlet and outlet openings of chamber C, and a uniform 
suction is maintained in the chamber C by the aspirator D, 
the action will be as follows : 

Gas will be drawn through the aperture B into the cham- 
ber C , creating suction in chamber C, which in turn causes 
gas to flow through the aperture A. The velocity with 
which the gas enters through A depends on the suction in the 
chamber C, and the velocity at which it flows out through B 
depends upon the excess of the suction in chamber C over 
that existing in chamber C, that is, the effective suction in C . 
As the suction in C increases, the effective suction must 
decrease, and hence the velocity of the gas entering at A 
increases, while the velocity of the gas passing out through B 
decreases, until the same quantity of gas enters at A as passes 



TEMPERATURE OF THE WASTE GASES. 15I 

out at B% As soon as this occurs no further change of suc- 
tion takes place in the chamber C, providing the gas entering 
at A and passing out at B be maintained at the same tem- 
perature. 

If from the constant stream of gas, while flowing through 
chamber C, one of its constituents is continuously removed by 
absorption, a reduction of volume will take place in chamber 
C and cause an increase in suction, and consequently a de- 
crease in the effective suction in C . Hence the velocity of 
the gas through A will increase, and the velocity through B 
will decrease, until the same quantity of gas enters at A as 
is absorbed by the reagent, plus that which passes out at 
aperture B. 

Thus every change in the volume of the constituents we 
are absorbing from the gas causes a corresponding change of 
suction in the chamber C. 

The apparatus is connected with a regulator, a manom- 
eter, and automatic recording register. 

TEMPERATURE OF THE WASTE GASES. 

As in analyzing coal, cinders, and gases we must have 
average samples, so in treating of waste gases we need average 
temperatures. It is not enough to take the temperature 
occasionally with the thermometer; it varies too much from 
time to time, even if the readings are taken frequently. We 
must have some method of obtaining the average temperature 
of the gas current, and this can be accomplished by means of 
a heat reservoir introduced into the flue. 

For this purpose one was devised by Scheurer-Kestner of 
a type which has been repeatedly copied and modified. It 
consists of an iron tube, bb (Fig. 39), placed in the flue so 
that the upper end, covered with an insulating material, is let 
into the wall to about one half its thickness, the remainder 
hanging free in the flue^. This tube is filled with paraffin, 



152 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



and in this is inserted the thermometer. The large mass of 
the paraffin is acted on by the mean temperature, but is unin- 
fluenced by any slight momentary changes which may occur. 
A self-registering thermometer is very advantageous, but 
readings at intervals of half an hour are sufficient ordinarily. 
Of course the opening around the tube should be packed so 
as to prevent all possible ingress of cold external air. 



1 
I 




Fig. 39. — Flue Thermometer. 

Occasionally mercury is used instead of paraffin. This 
renders the average of the heat more exactly, perhaps, but 
has the disadvantage of being much heavier and much more 
•expensive. There are also many difficulties in handling it 
which do not obtain with paraffin. The paraffin should be 
well refined, and have a high melting-point. 



THE PNEUMATIC PYROMETER. 

Uehling's pneumatic pyrometer is based on a principle 
analogous to that of the gas-composimeter, and is now in use 
in many places, automatically measuring the temperatures of 
chimneys and furnaces for all temperatures up to 3000° F., 
and registering the same on cards. The apparatus has been 
tested at the Stevens Institute of Technology, and the 
indications pronounced reliable. It cannot be safely used 



THE PNEUMATIC PYROMETER. 1 53 

continuously for temperatures above 2500°, but at that tem- 
perature and lower it works well and satisfactorily for months 
without requiring any readjustment. The automatic register 
is very sensitive, and can be easily adjusted for a new range of 
temperatures at any time. 

An explanation of the principle of its working is given in 
the inventor's own words: 

' ' The Pneumatic Pyrometer is based on the laws govern- 
ing the flow of air through small apertures. 

''If two such apertures A and B (Fig. 38) respectively 
form the inlet and outlet openings of a chamber C, and a uni- 
form suction is created in the chamber C by the aspirator D^ 
the action will be as follows : 

"Air will be drawn through the aperture B into the 
chamber C\ creating suction in chamber C^ which in turn 
causes air from the atmosphere to flow in through the aper- 
ture A. The velocity with which the air enters through A 
depends on the suction in the chamber C, and the velocity 
at which it flows out through B depends upon the excess of 
suction in C over that existing in the chamber C, that is, the 
effective suction in C . As the suction in C increases, the 
effective suction must decrease, and hence the velocity at 
which air flows in through the aperture A increases, and the 
velocity at which air flows out through the aperture B de- 
creases, until the same quantity of air enters at A as passes 
out at B. As soon as this occurs no further change of suc- 
tion can take place in the chamber C. 

"Air is very materially expanded by heat. Therefore 
the higher the temperature of the air the greater the volume, 
and the smaller will be the quantity of air drawn through a 
given aperture by the same suction. Now if the air as it 
passes through the aperture A is heated, but again cooled to 
a lower fixed temperature before it passes through the aper- 
ture B, less air will enter through the aperture A than is 
<irawn out through the aperture B. Hence the suction in C 



154 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

must increase and the effective suction in C must decrease, 
and in consequence the velocity of the air thiough A will 
increase and the velocity of the air through B will decrease, 
until the same quantity of air again flows through both aper- 
tures. Thus every change of temperature in the air entering 
through the aperture A will cause a corresponding change of 
suction in the chamber C. If two manometer-tubes/ and ^, 
Fig. 38, communicate respectively with the chambers C and 
C\ the column in tube q will indicate the constant suction in 
C and the column in tube/ will indicate the suction in the 
chamber C, which suction is a true measure of the tempera- 
ture of the air entering through the aperture A. 

DETERMINATION OF THE CARBON IN SMOKE. 

Soot or black forms from quick cooling of the hydro- 
carbons, temporarily dissociated by high temperatures. Fuels 
having no hydrogen as hydrocarbons, never produce smoke; 
pure charcoal, coke, or graphite never smokes. Soft coal, on 
the contrary, produces more as the air-supply grows less. 

Sainte-Claire Deville proved that a compound gas when 
heated sufficiently separates into its elements; a sudden cool- 
ing now will give a simple mixture instead of the original 
combination. A slow cooling, however, reproduces the 
original gas. Berthelot proved, on the other hand, that new 
compounds are formed on heating the hydrocarbons to high 
temperatures, a part of the carbon being deposited as soot. 
These two phenomena undoubtedly go on together in smoke 
production.^ 

If a metal tube be put in the gas current over a grate at 
a short distance from the fire, the hottest gases will be col- 

*Bunte gives some analyses of smoke-black: 

C H 

I ........ 97.2 2.8 

2 - 97-3 2.7 

3 ' 98.5 1.5 



DETERMINATION OF THE CARBON IN SMOKE. 155 

lected. Pass a stream of cold water through a pipe in this 
gas-current and a large quantity of black will be deposited. 
On stopping the water flow and inclining the tube a little 
the carbon disappears gradually, and when the temperature 
of the tube attains that of the gas, no black will be deposited. 
Cool it again, and more black forms immediately. 

Combustion gases meet with surfaces relatively cold in 
the boiler sides or flues, or even in colder currents of gas or 
air passing in through the grate. This produces a quick cool- 
ing, and consequent formation of black. 

Experiments made at Mulhouse in 1859 by Burnat 
showed an advantage gained in steaming by producing smoke, 
rather than introducing too great excess of air. The experi- 
ments showed that the loss in carbon was quite small, and 
these results have been confirmed by others since. E. R. 
Tatlock of Glasgow finds 60 per cent combustible matter in 
soot, and obtained 51.46 grains per cubic foot of furnace 
gases. 

To determine the amount of carbon in smoke, Scheurer- 
Kestner used a glass organic analysis apparatus, the tube 
having in the middle loosely packed asbestos for about 8 
inches, which was kept in place by platinum spirals. One 
end was drawn out to connect with the absorption apparatus, 
and the other end placed in the flue. After igniting and 
cooling the asbestos the small end is connected with an 
aspirator and the gas drawn slowly through. The carbon is 
all stopped by the asbestos, which becomes black for a short 
distance. When sufficiently collected, dry the tube at 100° 
C, heat to redness, and pass a stream of oxygen through it, 
collecting the carbonic acid formed. 

As an example Scheurer-Kestner gives the following: 

Waste gases, reduced to 0° and 760 rtlm. 86 litres. 
Time of sampling i hour. 



156 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

Composition of gas: 

CO, 8.5 per cent. 

Excess of air 53-4 

Nitrogen and residue 38.1 

CO3 from the combustion 0.070 gram. 

Equivalent to carbon 0.019 " 

By the analysis of the gases and that of the coal the 
quantity of air consumed was calculated. Knowing the 
volume of air used for the coal, its composition, and the pro- 
portion of carbon as black in the gases, the loss due to such 
■formation was calculated. 

Bunte publishes the following determinations of black: 





Waste Gases per 
Pound of Coal. 


( 

Bhack. 


Kind of Coal. 


Per Cubic Foot 
of Gas. 


Per Cent Calories 
of Heat of 
Combustion. 


jj^uhr 


cubic feet. 
135 
143 
169 
184 
189 
205 
163 
217 
233 
278 

293 
129 

155 


grains. 

15.43 
7.41 
0.72 
6.74 
1. 19 
2.03 

20.49 
6.79 

5.71 
6.48 
3- 70 
1.08 
6.64 


J T 




6 




0.07 
















It 


0.8 
0.7 
I 


(( 


<< 


,. 


6 


l\Tif»«;liPirhi 


I 




8 







Under the most unfavorable conditions for feeding the 
air, the loss due to formation of black does not exceed 2 per 
cent, even with smoky coal. Ronchamp coal gave the fol- 
lowing results : 

Feeding 240 cubic feet of air per pound of coal gave a 
gas containing 8.5 per cent of carbonic acid, excess of air 53 
per cent, and loss of carbon as black 0.485 per cent. 



DETERMINATION OF THE CARBON IN SMOKE. 1 57 

Feeding 112 cubic feet of air per pound of coal gave a 
gas containing 14.8 per cent carbonic acid, 6. J per cent excess 
of air, and 0.96 per cent of black. 

Saarbruck coal supplied with 155 cubic feet of air per 
pound gave a gas having 12.8 per cent of carbonic acid, 28.5 
per cent excess of air, and 2.03 per cent of black. 

These show that in addition to being a sign of diminution 
in combustible gases, smoke cannot cause a notable saving 
in fuel if such saving is accompanied by increased waste 
gases. The sensible heat of a larger volume compensates 
easily for the advantages resulting from the more perfect 
combustion of the carbon. 

Several methods have been devised for approximating to 
the actual quantity of carbon contained in smoke. One is 
based on the amount of soot deposited on a given surface 
placed in the chimney. The soot deposits on the upper sur- 
face away from the direct current. After being exposed for 
a few hours the deposit is brushed off and weighed. Another 
method is by using smoked glasses of different degrees of 
opacity and ascertaining what depth of color is necessary to 
make the smoke invisible. An improvement on this method 
is now being worked out by one of our manufacturers of 
optical goods, by means of which the glasses are held in a 
tube and so arranged as to gradually produce the effect, and 
in such way that it can be measured. 

Another method is that devised by Ringelmann, by means 
of which the blackness of the smoke is compared with a set of 
ruled lines, so scaled in width of line and space as to produce 
six different gradations from smokeless through gray and 
gray-black to dead black. He recommends the preparation 
of cards 8 inches square, and have them suspended 50 feet 
from the observer, at which distance the individual lines 
become indistinct, and only a general tint is observable. The 
intensity of the smoke is then compared with the cards and re- 
corded as agreeing with card No. I, 2, or whatever it may be. 



158 



CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



The cards are shown in Fig. 40, reduced in size, the actual 
lines and spaces being as follows: 



1 











44, 






IX 






I I I 






TiT 






TfT 






TTT 


;; 
























" 






' 


" 


" 






' " 




' 






" 


" 


' 






" 












































a 






H 


_ 


, 






, , 



Fig. 40. — RiNGELMANN Smoke Scale. 

Card o, all white. 

Card I, black lines I mm. thick, 10 mm. apart between 
centres, leaving spaces 9 mm. square. 

Card 2, lines 2.3 mm. thick; spaces 'j .J mm. sq. 

Card 3, lines 3.7 mm. thick; spaces 6.3 mm. sq. 

Card 4, lines 5,5 mm. thick; spaces 4.5 mm. sq. 

Card 5, all black. 



DETERMINATION OF THE CARBON IN SMOKE. 158^ 

In 1895 Cohen and Russell made some experiments to de- 
termine the extent of pollution of the air by smoke from 
Jiouse fires burning coal. The coal used was from Yorkshire, 
Durham, and Wigan. The quantity of soot formed was de- 
termined by aspirating through a brass tube \ inch diameter 
connected with a glass tube of same diameter and having a 
plug of cotton wool in one end. This plug was dried over 



sulphuric acid and the weight of the soot obtained, 
suits are given in the following table. 



The 



re- 



No. 


Volume of 
Chimney- 
gases. 


Weight 
of Soot. 


Per cent 

of Soot 

in Gases. 


Per cent 

of Soot to 

Carbon 

Burnt. 


Name of Coal. 


I 
2 

3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 
10 
II 

12 


litres 
218.0 
282.5 
249-5 
231.0 
164.5 
182.5 
I75-0 
278.5 
240.0 
230.5 
262.0 
230 


grams 
0.0155 
0.0267 

0.0174 
0.0228 
0.0292 
0.0219 
0.0247 
0.0278 
0.0243 
0.0227 
0.0282 
0.0232 
0.2844 


0.0073 
0.0094 
0.0070 
0.0099 
0.0177 
0.0120 
O.OI4I 
O.OIOO 
O.OIOT 
0.0098 
0.0108 
O.OIOI 


6.9 

10.2 

8.0 

5.8 

9-3 
6.0 

7.7 
5.1 
5.6 
4.8 
7-1 
5-1 


1 

[^"Silkstone Hards," Yorkshire. 

1 

1 

J 
■ " Haigh Moor Best," Yorkshire. 

" Harvey Seam," Durham. 
" Hutton Seam," 
" Best Deep Yard," Lancashire. 
" Best Arley," 




2744.0 


0.0103 


6.5 





It would seem that more reliable data could have been 
obtained had the carbon been collected on an asbestos plug 
and then burnt, the carbonic acid being collected. As origi- 
nally performed the result of the test cannot be called carbon, 
as it manifestly contained considerable ashes, etc., which had 
been carried up the chimney. By burning off the soot in a 
combustion tube, the actual content in carbon could have 
been obtained. 

A colorimetric method has been devised by P. Fritzsche 
which is carried out as follows : He takes a glass tube 6 
inches long and f inch diameter, in which he places a loose 



1 5 8<^ CAL ORIFIC PO PVEK OF FUEL S. 

cellulose plug of about 2 grams weight. This tube is con- 
nected by means of a short rubber tube to another tube of 
the same diameter long enough to reach into the flue or 
chimney, passing through a hole made for the purpose in the 
wall. The other end of the short tube is connected with an 
aspirator, and a measured quantity of smoke is drawn through 
it slowly. 

The tubes are then disconnected, the blackened portion 
of the cellulose transferred to a wide-mouthed, stoppered 
bottle holding 300 cubic centimetres. It is then agitated 
with 200 cc. of water till of uniform appearance. A portion 
of this mixture is then put into a round-bottomed test-tube 
having a diameter of about two inches and the color com- 
pared with a scale of colors previously prepared. 



CHAPTER XII. 
CALCULATION OF THE HEAT UNITS. 

HEAT OF THE AQUEOUS VAPOR. 

The quantity of heat contained in a kilogram or pound of 
steam at any temperature is 

Q — 606.5 + 0.305^' calories, 
or Q' = 1091.7 + o.305(^ - 32) B. T. U., 

allowing the specific heat of water to be constant. The 
number of heat units is considered the same as the tem- 
perature. 

So that, allowing the average temperature of aqueous 
vapor to be 150° C, each kilogram at 0° has absorbed a quan- 
tity of heat equal to 

606.5 + 0-305 X 150 = 652.25 calories 

or one pound has absorbed 1 174 B. T. U. 

There is a correction to this, since we do not wish the 
units existing in the steam, but only those added to it from 
the fuel. We must then deduct that already existing in the 
water at its entrance to the boiler. If the feed-water be 20"" 
(68° F.) the formula becomes 

652.25 — 20 = 632.25 calories, 
or 1 174 — (68 - 32) = 1 138 B. T. U. 

159 



l6o CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS 



HEAT OF WASTE GASES. 

The heat carried to the chimney by the waste gases is 
from several sources : 

1. Sensible heat shown by the temperature. 

2. Heat of vaporization of the hygroscopic water and the 
water formed from the hydrogen of the coal. 

3. Heat retained by the combustible gases or their heat of 
combustion. 

4. Heat represented by soot or black of the smoke. 

I. SENSIBLE HEAT OF THE TEMPERATURE. 

The calculation of the water equivalent of the heat carried 
to the chimney as sensible heat requires the volume, tem- 
perature, composition, and specific heat of the constituents. 

The specific heats of the usual constituents of waste gases 
are shown in Table VHI. The specific heats are supposed to 
be under constant pressure, so as to avoid useless calculations. 
The hydrocarbons or hydrogen will be omitted for the same 
reason. Calling v^ v' , v" , v'" the volumes in cubic metres 
of the gases nitrogen, carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, and oxy- 
gen, we find their respective weights, by multiplying these 
volumes by the weight per cubic metre, 

\.2^6v i.g66v' 1.2512^'' 1.43027'" 

N ' "coT' CO ' o 

Multiplying these by the specific weights we obtain the value 
in water, 

C = 1.2562; X 0.244+ i.g66v' X 0.217+ 1.2512/'' X 0.245 + 
1.4307'"' X 0.217. 

The equivalent in water c multiplied by the temperature 
on leaving the boiler gives calories, 

C = cx T. 



CALCULATION OF THE HEAT UNITS. l6l 

A correction of the same kind as that appHed to the tem- 
perature of the feed-water must be appHed. We do not 
wish the total calories, only those taken up from the coal. 
From the observed temperature T we must deduct the 
original temperature / before entering the fire. So that 

Q^c^{T-f). 

The general formula then becomes 

C = [(1.2562^)0.244 + (i.9662;')o.2i7 A^{\.2^\v")o.2\l 



N CO, CO 

+ (i.4307/")o.2i7] {T-t). 



O 
As an example, suppose the following composition : 

Nitrogen 81.25 ^ _ j Air in excess 23.04 (4.84 X 4.761) 

Oxygen 4.84 ^ ~" ( Nitrogen 63. 05 (81.25 — 4.84 — 23.04) 

Carbonic acid. . 13.08 13.08 

Carbonic oxide. 0.83 0.83 



and that the temperature {T — t) is 130°. Then 

Nitrogen 1.256 X .8125 X 0.244 — 0.249 

Carbonic acid 1.966 X . 1308 X 0.2 17 = 0.055 

Carbonic oxide. . . 1.25 i X .0083 X 0.245 =" 0.002 
Oxygen . 1. 430 X .0484 X 0.2 17 = O.015 



1. 0000 0.321 

The value in water for i cubic metre is 0.321 kilogram, 
which at 130° give 

o. 32 I X 1 30 = 41 . 7 calories. 

If the volume of the gases was 8.938 cubic metres per 
kilogram of coal, the calories carried to the chimney would be 

8.938 X 41.7 



00 



= 372 calories. (669.6 B. T. U.) 



1 62 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

The same result can be reached more quickly by taking 
the ratio of the specific heats to the volume (Table VIII). 

N 8125X0.306 = 0.249 

CO^ 1308 X 0.426 = 0.055 

CO 0083 X o. 306 = 0.002 

0484 X 0.310 = 0.015 



1. 0000 0.321 

0.321 X 130 X 8.938 = 372 calories. 

This may be still further simplified in practical work with 
the combustion under normal conditions. Base the calcula- 
tion on the proportion of carbonic acid, using 0.306 as coeffi- 
cient for the remaining gases. Then 

C = (0.426^;+ o.3o67?)(r-/) 

V CO^ o. 1308 X 0.426 = 0.055 

R N, CO, and 0.8692 X 0.306 =- 0.266 



0.321 

By means of the coefficients in Table IX we can still 
further shorten the calculation. By this table we get directly 

0.321 X 130 X 8.938 = 372 calories. 

The loss of heat due to temperature of the waste gases 
varies according to the condition of the boiler, its surface for 
radiation, the grate surface, and the air supply. With the 
most advantageous cases, and moderate combustion, the gas 
temperature at the exit does not exceed 150° (302^ F.), and 
the loss, 5 or 6 per cent of the total heat of combustion. 
It may reach 10 per cent, and in some cases even more. 

2. HEAT OF THE HYGROSCOPIC AND COMBUSTION WATER. 

During combustion, coal furnishes a quantity of aqueous 
vapor from its hygroscopic water and its hydrogen; the latter 



CALCULATION OF THE HEAT UNITS. 163 

is determined by multiplying the weight of hydrogen by 9. 
This is added to the hygroscopic water, and the formula 

(606.5 + 0.305/) — /' 

applied ; t being the temperature of the vapor in the gases 
(equal to that of the gases), and f being that of the external 
air. Besides this, however, we must consider the specific 
heat of the aqueous vapor, 0.475. Each kilogram still 
absorbs 0.475 multiplied by the number of degrees of tem- 
perature above 100°, and the formula becomes 

^[(606.5 + 0.305/) - t' + o.475(/ - 100)], 



X being the quantity of water, in kilograms, furnished by the 
coal. 

Suppose a coal contains 15 grams per kilogram of hygro- 
scopic water and 45 grams of hydrogen, as follows: 

Hygroscopic water 15 

Carbon 735 

Hydrogen 45 

Nitrogen and oxygen 50 

Ash 160 



1000 



Hydrogen 45 produces 9 X 45 = 4^5 grams, to which 
add the 15 grams of hygroscopic water, 405 -(- 15 === 420 
grams. The heat necessary to vaporize this, increased by 
that corresponding to the temperature of the gases passing up 
the chimney, represents the heat lost. 

If the flue temperature is 145° = /, and the external air 
17.5° = f , we have 

o.42o[(6o6.5 + 0.305 X 145) - 17.5+0.475(145 - 100)] 

= 274.9(494.8 B T. U.). 



J 64 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

If the heat of combustion of the coal is 7000 calories, them 
the loss is 

274.9 

= 3.Q2 per cent. 

7000 ^ ^ ^ 

The loss due to these causes in an average coal (4-5 per 
cent hydrogen and i to 2 per cent moisture) is usually from 2 
to 4 per cent. 



3. CALORIES OF THE COMBUSTIBLE GASES. 

Carbonic oxide is always present in variable quantities,, 
often hydrocarbons and sometimes hydrogen. This refers to 
ordinary fuel and the usual methods of burning. The quan- 
tity of unburnt gases depends on the kind of fireplace used 
and the system of charging. Thick charges of fuel always 
increase the volume of unburnt gases; the smallest amount 
being obtained from small, equivalent charges, fed frequently 
and using 30 to 50 per cent more air than the theoretical 
quantity. 

To determine this loss w^e may commence with the volume 
or the weight corresponding to i kilogram of coal burnt. 
The calculation is given on pages 137' and 138. No account 
need be made of the temperature, the calculation of loss due 
this having been made on page 161 for all gases, and there- 
fore for these gases. 

The calorific coefficients of the unburnt gases, referred to 
a cubic metre at 0° and 760 mm. pressure, are 

Heat of Combustion. 

Weight per cub. m. , * . 

in Kilograms. J^er Kilo. Per Cubic Metre. 

Hydrogen 0.089 34500 3091 

Carbonic oxide 1.25 i 2435 3043 

Methane (CHJ 0.715 13343 10038 

Carbon vapor. 1.073 11328 12 143 



CALCULATION OF THE HEAT UNITS. 1 65 

The weight and heat of combustion of carbon vapor are 
given, as most of the time we do not know the molecular 
condensation of the hydrocarbons; usually the ultimate com- 
position is all that is known. Hence the hydrogen and car- 
bon must be given their heat values as though free. Fortu- 
nately they occur in only small percentages, and the error 
introduced by so doing is small. 

Suppose a gas to analyze 

Carbonic oxide i.O 

Carbonic acid 13.0 

Methane i .0 

Oxygen 6.0 

Nitrogen 79-0 

100. o 

Assuming that the air has been fed at the rate of 10 cubic 
metres per kilogram (160.5 cubic feet per pound), and that 
the coal has a heat value of 8000 calories (14400 B. T. U.), 
we will have, for 10 cubic metres, 

Carbonic oxide o. i cubic metres. 

Carbonic acid. 1.3 " " 

Methane o. i " 

Oxygen 0.6 " ' * 

Nitrogen 7.9 " '' 



10. o 
Then 

CH,, o. I cub. m. @ 0.715 = 0.0715 kilogram; 
CO, O.I " " @ 1. 251 =0.1251 

and 0.0715 X 13343 == 933-7 calories; 

0.1251 X 2435 = 305.0 



Total 1238.7 



l66 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

The loss, then, is 1238.7 in 8000, or 15.48 per cent. 

If instead of knowing the proportion of the hydrocarbons 
we know only that of carbon and hydrogen, the heat values 
calculate separately. Then, instead of methane o. i, there 
would be carbon 0.05, and hydrogen 0.2. Then the cal- 
culation would be 

0.2 X 0.089 = 0.0178 ; 0.0178x34500= 614. 1 
0.05x1.073=0.0536; 0.0536 X 8137= 436.1 
0..1 X 1.251 = 0.1251 ; 0.1251 X 2435= 305.0 



1355.2 calories 

The difference, 1355.2 — 1238.7 = 116.5 calories, or 0.9 
per cent of the calories lost, or 15.48 X .009 = 0.138 per cent 
of the total calories of the coal, which is small compared with 
other sources of error. 

By employing Table VII we may dispense with reducing 
the volumes to weights, thus : 

Hydrogen 0.2m' X 3091 = 618 

Carbon vapor 0.05 X 8722 = 436 

Carbonic oxide o. i X 3043 = 304 



135; 



The preceding is an exaggerated case ; as usually, with 
ordinary working, the loss is from 2 to 7 per cent, rarely- 
exceeding the latter. Either method of calculation may be 
used, then, without risk of causing an error of importance. 

4. CALORIES DUE TO THE SOOT. 

The soot in smoke consists of carbon with a trace of 
hydrogen. It can be calculated as all carbon without appre- 
ciable error and with the coef^cient 8137. Knowing the 
volume of gases produced by i kilogram and its content in 
black (page 154), calculate the number of calories. Under 



CALCULATION OF THE HEAT UNITS. 



167 



the most favorable conditions for smoke production the loss 
does not exceed i per cent, and is generally less than one 
half that amount. 

DISTRIBUTION OF CALORIES-LOSS. 

The difference between heat units accounted for and 
those possible is considered as resulting from radiation by 
surfaces not available for producing steam. The following is 
taken from Scheurer- Kestner's results with a three -tube 
steam boiler followed by a reheater. The first column gives 
results obtained with Ronchamp coal in 1868, the second 
results with Nixon's Navigation Co.'s coal in 1881. 



Ronchamp. 

Calories in the steam 58 to 

*' " waste gases 3.8 to 

*' '* unburnt gases .. . 2.4 to 

"■ " smoke o. 3 to 

*' '' aqueous vapor. . 2.0 to 

not accounted for 19.4 to 24 



•7 

.7 

.75 

•7 

.7 



Nixon. 

74.5^ 
5.42 

traces 
none 
2.81 

17.27 



On September 20, 1895, Engi7ieeri7ig published the results 
of some experiments made by Bryan Donkin with Nixon's 
coal on twenty different types of boilers. The following 
table contains some of them : 



Calories. 



In the steam 

In the waste gases 

In the combustible gases.. 
Not accounted for 



XII. 

78.5 


VIII. 

78.3 


VI. 
74-4 


VII. 

71.8 


II. 


XI. 


III. 
67.6 


IV. 


XX. 


70.4 


69.8 


66.2 


65.8 


6.5 


14.0 


13.8 


13-3 


13.6 


18.0 


16.2 


22.5 


18.0 


0.0 


1-7 


2.4 


0.8 


0.0 


1.2 


1.2 


0.0 


1.6 


I5-0 


5.8 


9-3 


14.0 


II. 9 


10.9 


9.6 


II. 


14.4 



63.8 

9.4 

12.7 

13-9 



The calories in the steam varied from 63.8 to 78.5 per cent. 

" " " waste gases *' " 6.5 to 22.5 *' " 

'* " " combustible gases " " 0.0 to 12.7 " " 

" " not accounted for " " 5.8 to 15.0 " " 

For the method of properly tabulating the heat balance, 
see section XXI of the Steam Boiler Code on page 193. 



l68 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 



FLAME AND FLAME TEMPERATURES. 

Whenever the temperature is sufficiently high to raise a. 
portion of the carbon, hydrogen, or other gaseous com- 
bustible to incandescence, flame is produced. The tempera- 
ture at which this phenomenon occurs varies with the sub- 
stance burnt. Usually it requires a red heat or higher, but 
in some cases a much lower temperature suffices: bor-methyl 
B(CH3)3 is an example, the flame temperature of which is not 
high enough to scorch the finger placed in it. It is not neces- 
sary that the flame should have solid particles in it, as flame 
is produced by hydrogen burning under pressure in oxygen ; 
neither is incandescence alone sufficient, as the fire of pure 
carbon, magnesium, or iron glows but does not flame. 
Flame is hollow, the combustion occurring on the surface, 
and this may be easily demonstrated, by drawing off some of 
the interior unconsumed gases with a tube and burning them. 

Bunsen's researches led to the conclusion that the tem- 
perature of burning carbonic oxide rapidly rose to 3000° C, 
and remained stationary till one third of it was consumed ; 
the temperature then fell to 2500° C, at which more burnt; 
and finally fell to about 1200° C, which temperature was 
maintained till all the remainder was consumed. Actually 
the last temperature is soon reached in practice. Berthelot 
confirms this, but is in doubt whether the loss of temperature 
is due to dissociation or to change in specific heat. Some 
hold that part of this loss of heat is caused by its absorption, 
due to the production of incandescence and its accompanying 
flame phenomena. A gas raised to incandescence gradually 
manifests each increment of heat till that point is reached, 
and beyond this no increase is noticed, all such further 
increase being consumed by the flame production. 

The rate of propagation of flame varies with the pressure 
and with the material burning. The most rapid rate with 
coal gas is when it is mixed with 5 parts of air; with marsk 



FLAME TEMPERA TUBES. itg 

gas, 8i parts of air. It will be noticed that the proportion of 
oxygen is sensibly less than that required for perfect com- 
bustion. 

The luminosity depends on the compression of the gases 
or the air. Hydrogen burning in oxygen at ordinary pressure 
gives a flame hardly visible at all ; with a pressure of 20 atmos- 
pheres it becomes quite luminous. Arsenic in burning pro- 
duces quite a luminous flame at ordinary air pressure; but 
hardly any in rarefied air. The same is true of carbonic 
oxide and other gases. The luminosity seems to be in direct 
proportion to the pressure. 

Luminosity seems to be greater with those substances 
which on burning produce dense vapors. Hydrogen and 
chlorine produce a vapor twice as heavy as water and the 
luminosity is much stronger than with the oxygen-hydrogen 
flame. Carbon and sulphur also produce heavy vapors and 
much light. Phosphorus burning in oxygen produces the 
dense heavy phosphoric anhydride and this is accompanied 
with an almost blinding light. 

The length of the flame ordinarily depends on the quantity 
of hydrogen, and consequently the hydrocarbons contained 
in, or generated from, the body consumed. With fuels con- 
taining high hydrocarbon percentages, flame of almost any 
desired length can be produced. This is especially the case 
with gases. 

The theoretical temperature of combustion, and hence of 
the flame, may be calculated by dividing the heat units pro- 
duced by the specific heats of the products formed. Of course, 
these theoretical temperatures are never reached in practice, 
but they serve as aids in determining the value of fuels for 
certain purposes. 

A few typical examples of these calculations will be given. 

I. Hydrogen. — Hydrogen burnt in oxygen produces 
29000 heat units (water considered as vapor); the specific 
heat of the aqueous vapor produced is 0.475. The hydroren 



I^O CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

uses 8 times its weight of oxygen and generates 9 times the 
quantity of water. 
Then 

"9^^^ = 6727° C. 
9 X 0.479 

Bunsen and Sainte-Claire Deville showed that the highest 
temperature actually obtained is 2500° C, which may be in- 
creased to 2850° C. by a pressure of 10 atmospheres. 

The presence of nitrogen modifies the result materially. 
The quantity of oxygen required, obtained from air, would 
introduce 26.78 parts of nitrogen, the specific heat of which 
is 0.244. The equation would then be 

' ?T . =--2674''C. 

9X0.479 + 26.78X0.244 

Bunsen's maximum temperature actually reached was 
1800° C. 

2. Carboji. — Carbon burnt to carbonic oxide consumes 
1.33 parts of oxygen, forms 2.33 parts of carbonic oxide, and 
if burnt in air, introduces 4.46 parts of nitrogen. The specific 
heat of carbonic oxide is 0.245 ^^d of nitrogen 0.244, ^s 
before. The heat units generated are 2435. 

For combustion in oxygen the equation would be 

'4^5 -4265°C. 



2.33 X 0.245 
In air it would be 

2435 



= 1462° C. 



2.33 X 0.245+4.46 X 0.244 
The latter temperature is about the same as that actually 
observed, and shows that but little dissociation occurs. 
Owing to the non-volatility of carbon no flame is produced, 
only an incandescence. The flame we ordinarily see on in- 
candescent carbon is from the burning of carbonic oxide. 
Carbon burnt to carbon dioxide can be treated similarly; also 
carbonic oxide burnt to carbon dioxide. 



FLAME TEMPERATURES. 1 71 

3. Marsh Gas. — This gas requires 4 times its weight of 
oxygen, and produces 2.25 parts of aqueous vapor and 2.75 
parts of carbonic acid. If air is used, 13.39 parts of nitrogea 
are introduced. The heat of combustion is 13343 calories. 

The equations are, then, 

^^M3 ^ ;97io c, 

2.25 X 0.479-1-2.75 X 0.217 

for oxygen and 

-i3343 = ,245° C, 

2.25 X 0.479 + 2.75 X 0.217 -|- 13.39 X 0.244 

for combustion in air. 

defiant gas, acetylene, etc., can be calculated similarly. 

With a mixed gas, i.e., one containing several gases, account 

must be taken of each one separately. Producer gas will be 

given as an example. 

4. Producer Gas. — The producer gas taken will be assumed 
to have the following composition by volume: 

Carbonic oxide ... 21.0 per cent. 

Hydrogen 11.5 '' " 

Marsh gas 2.0 " '' 

Carbonic acid , . . 6.0 " ' ^ 

Nitrogen . 59.5 " " 



100. o '' " 
First obtain the weight of the constituents. (See the tables.) 
0.21 X 1. 2515 = 0.2628 
o. 1 1 5 X 0.0896 — 0.0103 
0.02 X 0.7155 =0.0143 
0.06 X 1.9666=0.1360 
0.595 X 1. 2561 =0.7474 

CO2 H2O N 

0.413 0.502 



CO 0.2628 produces 

H 0.0103 '' 

CH, 0.0143 

CO, 0.1360 

N 0.7474 '' 



0.093 0.276 

0.039 0.032 0.192 

0.136 

0.747 

0.588 0.125 1. 717 



172 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

Then as the heat of combustion is ^^"j .66 by volume of 
874.6 by weight, we have for combustion in oxygen, 

0.125 X 0.479 + 0.588 X 0.217+0.747 X 0.244 
and for combustion in air, 

0.125 X 0.479 + 0.588 X 0.217+ 1. 717 X 0.244 

5. Petroleum Oil. — The oil may be assumed to contain 

Carbon 85 per cent. 

Hydrogen 15 " '' 

100 

C 0.85 produces 3-ii7 CO, and 7.588 N 

H 0.15 '' 1.35 H,0 .... '' '' 4.017 '' 



1.35 H,0 1. 117 CO, 11.605 N 

The heat of combustion may be assumed at 1 0000 calories. 
Then for combustion in oxygen, 

1 0000 ^^ ^ 

7558°C., 



1.35 X 0.479+ 3-II7 X 0.217 

and for combustion in air, 

1 0000 
1.35 X 0.479 +3. 1 17 X 0.217+ 11.605 X 0.244 



= 2400*^ C. 



Other oils or solid fuels may be calculated according to 
this model. 

At the end of the volume are given a few of those fuels 
most commonly used with the theoretical oxygen and air 
flame temperatures. 



CARBON VAPOR. 173 

WEIGHT AND HEAT UNITS OF CARBON VAPOR. 

Two volumes of carbonic oxide are produced from i volume 
<of oxygen, and hence from i volume of carbon. i cubic 
.metre of carbonic oxide weighs 125 1 grams. i cubic metre 
of oxygen weighs 1430 grams, i cubic metre of carbonic 
oxide contains, then, one-half a cubic metre of oxygen weigh- 
ii^g 715 grams, and one-half a cubic metre of carbon vapor 
weighing 536 grams. Hence I cubic metre of carbon vapor 
weighs 2 X 536 = 1072 grams, and I kilogram measures 
J : 1072 = 0.9328 cubic metre. 
Or 

I cubic foot of carbonic oxide weighs 546.78 grains. 
I '' " '' oxygen weighs 624.85 " 

One cubic foot CO then contains ^ cubic foot of O and ^ 
cubic foot of C. 

546.78 - 312.425 = 234.355, 
and 

2 X 234.355 = 468.71 grains, 

weight of I cubic foot of carbon vapor. 

One pound of carbon vapor measures 14.93 cubic feet. 

If we wish the heat-units of carbon in vapor without the 
lieat of vaporization, multiply the weight of a cubic metre by 
the heat of combustion of solid carbon. If from wood charcoal^ 

8137 X 1.072 == 8722(15699.6 B. T. U.). 

If from diamond, 

7859 X 1.072 = 8424(14963.2 B.T. U.). 

If carbon vapor with its heat of vaporization be wanted, 
take the heat of combustion of carbonic oxide which contains 
carbon as vapor and compare it with the heat of combustion of 
carbon, uniting with the same quantity of oxygen to form 



174 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

carbonic oxide. In doing so it is supposed that carbon in 
combining with two atoms of oxygen generates the same 
quantity of heat with one as with the other, only in the first 
case part of the heat is used in vaporizing the carbon. This 
heat is found by subtracting the heat of combustion of the 
spHd carbon from that of the carbon supposed gaseous in 
carbonic oxide. 

One kilogram of carbon unites with 1.333 kilograms of 
oxygen to form 2.333 kilograms of carbonic oxide. With 
diamond there is generated 2405 calories. The 2.333 kilograms 
of carbonic oxide in becoming carbonic acid generates 2.333 X 
2435 = 5680 calories. Then i kilogram of carbon in passing 
from carbonic oxide to carbonic acid generates 5680 calories. 
We have seen, on the other hand, that i kilogram of diamond 
carbon generates 2405 calories in becoming carbonic oxide. 
The difference, then, 5680 — 2405 = 3275(5895 B. T. U.) cal- 
ories, represents the heat of vaporization of diamond carbon. 
With wood charcoal it becomes 5680 — 2489 = 3191(5743.8 
B. T. U.). 

The heat of combustion will be then 7859 + 3275 = 1 1 134 
calories (20041 B. T. U.) for diamond, and 8137 + 3 191 — 
1 1328 calories (20390 B. T. U.) for wood charcoal. 

EVAPORATIVE POWER OF FUEL. 

The evaporative power of a fuel represents the number of 
pounds of water at 212° F. that can be evaporated or con- 
verted into steam by one pound of the fuel. Water at that 
temperature is sufificiently heated to vaporize, but needs an 
addition of force equivalent to that required for the vaporiza- 
tion. This quantity varies for the pressure of the barometer 
and the temperature of the water, but for the purposes of cal- 
culation is considered to be taken at 30 inches of mercury and 
212° F. Experiment has shown the equivalent to be 965.7 
heatunits (B. T. U.). 



EVAPORATIVE POWER. I/S 

To find the theoretical evaporating power of a fuel, then, 
divide the number of thermal units it generates on combus- 
tion by 965.7. For instance, the heat of combustion of a 
sample of Illinois coal was determined by Prof. Carpenter to 
be 13200. Its evaporative power would be 

13200 
. ^g^= 13.67 pounds. 

This means that under the proper conditions one pound 
of the coal in question would evaporate 13.67 pounds already 
heated to 212° F. 

But this amount of duty is rarely realized. The boiler 
may not be well built, the setting may be faulty, and there 
are numerous other chemical or mechanical conditions which 
modify the yield. With these no rule can be established ; 
each individual case must be allowed for specially. With 
ashes and moisture, chemical constituents of the coal, the 
case is different. A percentage allowance for these will usually 
suf^ce. 

For instance, in the above coal there was 5.12 per cent of 
water and 15.2 per cent of ash. Then 

100 — (15.2 -f- 5.12) X 13.67 = 12.23 pounds. 

If deemed necessary, a further correction can be made for 
the water of the coal, which would reduce the evaporation by 
its own amount. This correction would become 

12.23 ~~ 0-05 == 12.18 pounds 

as the quantity which should be evaporated with the coal as 
analyzed. 

The quantity of ash produces an effect on the evaporative 
power aside from its proportional reduction in combustible. 
This is due to the fact that where a large percentage of ash 
occurs, the particles of carbon of the fuel are not burnt com- 



J 76 CALORIFIC POWER OF FUELS. 

pletely, owing to being enclosed in the ash and consequently- 
shut off from access of air. This is especially the case with 
those ashes which are easily fuzed by the heat of the fire. 
Ashes containing carbonates are much more easily fuzed than 
those containing phosphates or sulphates. On this account a 
chemical analysis of the ash is at times quite desirable. 

Some difference in evaporation is noticed in using the dif- 
ferent sizes of coal, more particularly with the fine sizes. 
With the proper arrangements for burning fires a good yield 
is obtained, but with the ordinary grates the yield is much 
lower. 



APPENDIX. 



REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE REVISION OF THE 
SOCIETY CODE OF 1885, RELATIVE TO A STANDARD 
METHOD OF CONDUCTING STEAM-BOILER TRIALS. 

Presented to the New York meeting of the American Society of Mechani 
cal Engineers, December 1899, ^"^ forming a part of the Transac- 
tions, Volume XXI. 

To THE American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 

Gentlemen : The undersigned Committee, to which was 
submitted the revision of the Society Code of 1885, relative 
to a standard method of conducting steam-boiler trials, re- 
ports as follows : 

The Committee of 1885 presented a full statement of the 
principles which governed it in the preparation of the Code of 
Rules at that time recommended. These principles covered 
the ground in an admirable manner, so far as the practice of 
boiler testing had been perfected, and we are in unanimous 
accord with the sentiments which the report of that Com- 
mittee expressed. During the interval of thirteen years 
which has passed, methods and instruments have in some 
measure changed. Improvements have been made in the in- 
struments for determining the moisture in steam. The 
throttling and separating forms of calorimeters have displaced 
the barrel and other types of steam calorimeters referred to in 
the previous report. Attention has been devoted to the de- 
termination of the calofffic value of coal, and a number of 
coal calorimeters have been brought out and successfully 
used for this purpose. It has come to be a practice with 
many experts to include in the table of results of boiler 
tests the percentage of "efficiency," or proportion of the 

177 



178 APPENDIX. 

calorific value of the coal which is utilized by the boiler^ 
Specifications and contracts are in some cases drawn up, provid- 
ing for certain percentages of efficiency instead of a specified. 
evaporation. The analysis of flue gases is receiving more at- 
tention than formerly, not only in our educational institutions, 
but also in the regular practice of engineers who make a spe- 
cialty of boiler testing. 

Your Committee submits a revised Code, termed the Code 
of 1899. The changes are mainly in the line of amendments 
such as the experience of the last thirteen years has shown to 
be desirable. The amendments relate to the use of improved 
steam calorimeters, to sampling coal and determining its moist- 
ure, to calorific tests and analysis of coal, to analysis of flue 
gases, to smoke observations, to determinations of efficiency, 
and to methods of working out the " heat balance." 

The tabular form of presenting the results of the test is some- 
what changed and enlarged, and alterations in the text of the 
Code are made wherever needed. At the same time a second or 
" short form " of report is added, for use in commercial tests or 
in cases where it is necessary to give only the principal data 
and results. 

It is beyond the province of the Committee to recommend in- 
struments of particular makers for obtaining the quality of the 
steam, the calorific value of the fuel, or any other data relating 
to the trial ; but following the practice of the former Commit- 
tee, individual members have submitted their views (with the 
approval of the full membership) in an " Appendix to the 1899 
Code," signed by their initials. In this appendix are included 
some of the articles from the appendix to the former Code, 
which are thought to be of especial value. 

In the matter of instruments for determining the calorific 
value of fuel, it seems desirable that the Committee should 
make a recommendation which is as specific as present knowl- 
edge and circumstances will warrant. It is agreed that some 
form of calorimeter in which the coal is burned in an atmo- 
sphere of oxygen gas is to be preferred, and it is generally held 
that the most perfect apparatus thus far brought out is the 
Bomb Calorimeter, originally designed by Berthelot and modi- 
fied by Mahler and Hempel. Several of these instruments are 
in use in this country, principally in the laboratories of engineer- 
ing schools ; but the apparatus is complicated and expensive^ 



APPENDIX, 179 

and it is not probable that many engineers will have the instru-, 
ment as a part of their equipment for testing boilers. It is 
recommended, therefore, that samples of the coal used in test- 
ing boilers be sent for determinations of their heating value to 
a testing laboratory provided with one of these instruments, 
or with some instrument which shall be proven to be equally 
good. (Article XYII., Code.) 

The Committee approves the conclusions of the 1885 Code to 
the effect that the standard "unit of evaporation" should be 
one pound of water at 212 degrees Fahr. evaporated into dry 
steam of the same temperature. This unit is equivalent to 965.7 
[British thermal units. 

The Committee recommends that, as far as possible, the 
capacity of a boiler be expressed in terms of the " number of 
pounds of water evaporated per hour from and at 212 degrees." 
It does not seem expedient, however, to abandon the widely 
recognized measure of capacity of stationa'ry or land boilers 
expressed in terms of "boiler horse-power." 

The unit of commercial boiler horse-power adopted by the 
Committee of 1885 was the same as that used in the reports of 
the boiler tests made at the Centennial Exhibition in 1876. The 
Committee of 1885 reported in favor of this standard in lan- 
guage of which the following is an extract : 

" Your Committee, after due consideration, has determined to 
accept the Centennial standard, and to recommend that in all 
standard trials the commercial horse-power be taken as an evapo- 
ration of 30 pounds of water per hour from a feed-water tem- 
perature of 100 degrees Fahr. into steam at 70 pounds gauge 
pressure, which shall be considered to be equal to 34J units of 
evaporation ; that is, to 34^ pounds of water evaporated from a 
feed-water temperature of 212 degrees Fahr. into steam at the 
same temperature. This standard is equal to 33,305 thermal 
units per hour." 

The present Committee accepts the same standard, but re- 
verses the order of two clauses in the statement, and slightly 
modifies them to read as follows : 

The unit of commercial horse-power developed by a boiler 
shall be taken as 34J units of evaporation per hour ; that is, 34^ 
pounds of water evaporated per hour from a feed-water tem- 
perature of 212 degrees Fahr. into dry steam of the same tem- 
perature. This standard is equivalent to 33,317 British thermal 



l80 APPENDIX. 

units per hour. It is also practically equivalent to an evapora- 
tion of 30 pounds of water from a feed- water temperature of 100 
degrees Fahr. into steam at 70 pounds gauge pressure.'' 

The Committee also indorses the statement of the Committee 
of 1885 concerning the commercial rating of boilers, changing 
somewhat its wording, so as to read as follows : 

A boiler rated at any stated capacity should develop that 
capacity when using the best coal ordinarily sold in the market 
where the boiler is located, when fired by an ordinary fireman,, 
without forcing the fires, while exhibiting good economy ; and, 
further, the boiler should develop at least one-third more than 
the stated capacity when using the same fuel and operated by 
the same fireman, the full draft being employed and the fires 
being crowded ; the available draft at the damper, unless other« 
wise understood, being not less than \ inch water column. 

Respectfully submitted, 

Chas. E. Emery,! 
Wm. Kent, 
Geo. H. Barrus, 
Chas. T. Porter, 
^ Robert H. Thurston, 

Robert W. Hunt, 
F. W. Dean, 
J. S. Coon, 
Wm. B. Potter, 

* According to the tables in Porter's Treatise on tlie Richards Steam Engine 
Indicator, an evaporation of 30 pounds of water from 100 degrees Fahr. into 
steam at 70 pounds pressure is equal to an evaporation of 34.488 pounds from 
and at 212 degrees ; and an evaporation of 34^ pounds from and at 212 degrees^ 
Fahr. is equal to 30.010 pounds from 100 degrees Fahr. into steam at 70 pounda 
pressure. 

The "unit of evaporation" being equivalent to 965.7 thermal units, the com- 
mercial horse-power = 34.5 x 965.7 = 33,317 thermal units. 

f The motion for the appointment of this Committee was made by Mr. 
Barrus in connection with the discussion of Mr. Dean's paper. No. DCL., on 
" The Efficiency of Boilers," etc. The President of the Society designated Mr. 
Kent, the chairman of the Committee of 1884, to call the first meeting of the new 
Committee. At that meeting, on motion of Mr. Kent, Dr. Emery was selected 
as chairman, and he conducted the preliminary correspondence. Tlie draft of 
report in the form originally printed and presented for criticism at the Annual 
Meeting in December, 1897, was prepared by a sub-committee consisting of 
Messrs. Emery, Porter, Barrus, and Kent. Much of the work of revision of this 
preliminary draft was done by Dr. Emery a few weeks before his death in June, 
1898, and the final revision, bringing the report to its present form, was done by 
Messrs. Barrus and Kent. 



Committee. 



APPENDIX. ^ i8e 

EXILES FOE CONDUCTING BOILEE TEIALS. 

CODE OF 1899. 

I. Determine at the outset the specific object of the proposed! 
trial, whether it be to ascertain the capacity of the boiler, its 
efficiency as a steam generator, its efficiency and its defects under 
usual working conditions, the economy of some particular kind 
of fuel, or the effect of changes of design, proportion, or opera- 
tion ; and prepare for the trial accordingly. 

II. Examine the boiler, both outside and inside ; ascertain the 
dimensions of grates, heating surfaces, and all important parts ; 
and make a full record, describing the same, and illustrating 
special features by sketches. The area of heating surface is to 
be computed from the surfaces of shells, tubes, furnaces, and fire- 
boxes in contact with the fire or hot gases. The outside diam- 
eter of water-tubes and the inside diameter of fire-tubes are 
to be used in the computation. All surfaces below the mean 
water level which haye water on one side and products of com- 
bustion on the other are to be considered as water-heating- 
surface, and all surfaces above the mean water level which 
have steam on one side and products of combustion on the 
other are to be considered as superheating surface. 

III. JSfotice the general condition of the boiler and its equipment, 
and record such facts in relation thereto as bear upon the objects 
in view. 

If the object of the trial is to ascertain the maximum economy 
or capacity of the boiler as a steam generator, the boiler and all 
its appurtenances should be put in first-class condition. Glean 
the heating surface inside and outside, remove clinkers from 
the grates and from the sides of the furnace. Eemove all dust, 
soot, and ashes from the chambers, smoke connections, and 
flues. Close air leaks in the masonry and poorly fitted clean- 
ing doors. See that the damper will open wide and close tight. 
Test for air leaks by firing a few shovels of smoky fuel and im- 
mediately closing the damper, observing the escape of smoke 
through the crevices, or by passing the flame of a candle over 
cracks in the brickwork. 

IV. Determine the character of the coal to be used. For tests. 
of the efficiency or capacity of the boiler for comparison with 
other boilers the coal should, if possible, be of some kind which 
is commercially regarded as a standard. For New England. 



1 82 APPENDIX. 

and tliat portion of the country east of the Allegheny Moun- 
tains, good anthracite egg coal, containing not over 10 per cent, 
of ash, and semi-bituminous Clearfield (Pa.), Cumberland (^Md.), 
and Pocahontas (Va.) coals are thus regarded. West of the 
Allegheny Mountains, Pocahontas (Ya.) and New Eiver (W. Va.) 
semi-bituminous, and Youghiogheny or Pittsburg bituminous 
coals are recognized as standards.* There is no special grade 
of coal mined in the Western States which is widely recognized 
as of superior quality or considered as a standard coal for 
boiler testing. Big Muddy lump, an Illinois coal mined in 
Jackson County, 111., is suggested as being of sufficiently high 
grade to answer these requirements in districts where it is more 
conveniently obtainable than the other coals mentioned above. 

For tests made to determine the performance of a boiler with 
a particular kind of coal, such as may be specified in a contract 
for the sale of a boiler, the coal used should not be higher in 
ash and in moisture than that specified, since increase in ash 
and moisture above a stated amount is apt to cause a falling off 
of both capacity and economy in greater proportion than the 
proportion of such increase. 

Y. Edahlisli the correctness of all apparatus used in the test for 
weighing and measuring. These are : 

1. Scales for weighing coal, ashes, and water. 

2. Tanks, or water meters for measuring water. Water me- 
ters, as a rule, should only be used as a check on other measure- 
ments. For accurate work, the water should be weighed or 
measured in a tank. 

3. Thermometers and pyrometers for taking temperatures of 
air, steam, feed-water, waste gases, etc. 

4. Pressure gauges, draught gauges, etc. 

The kind and location of the various pieces of testing appara- 
tus must be left to the judgment of the person conducting the 
test ; always keeping in mind the main object, i.e., to obtain 
authentic data. 

YL See that the boiler is thoroughly heated before the trial to 
its usual working temperature. If the boiler is new and of a 
form provided with a brick setting, it should be in regular use 

* These coals are selected because they are about the only coals which possess 
the essentials of excellence of quality, adaptability to various kinds of furnaces, 
4jrates, boilers, and methods of firing, and wide distribution and general accessi- 
bility iu the markets. 



APPENDIX. , 183 

^t least a week before the trial, so as to dry and heat the walls. 
Jf it has been laid off and become cold, it should be worked 
l)efore the trial until the walls are well heated. 

VII. The holler and connections should be proved to be free from 
leaks before beginning a test, and all water connections, includ- 
ing blow and extra feed pipes, should be disconnected, stopped 
with blank flanges, or bled through special openings beyond the 
valves, except the particular pipe through which water is to be 
fed to the boiler during the trial. During the test the blow-off 
and feed pipes should remain exposed to view. 

If an injector is used, it should receive steam directly through 
:a felted pipe from the boiler being tested.^ 

If the water is metered after it passes the injector, its tem- 
perature should be taken at the point where it leaves the injector. 
If the quantity is determined before it goes to the injector the 
temperature should be determined on the suction side of the 
injector, and if no change of temperature occurs other than that 
dae to the injector, the temperature thus determined is properly 
that of the feed-water. When the temperature changes between 
the injector and the boiler, as by the use of a heater or by radi- 
ation, the temperature at which the water enters and leaves the 
injector and that at which it enters the boiler should all be 
taken. In that case the weight to be used is that of the water 
leaving the injector, computed from the heat units if not 
directly measured, and the temperature, that of the water 
entering the boiler. 

Let w = weight of water entering the injector. 
X = '' " steam " 

A, = heat units per pound of water entering injector. 
h, = " " " " " steam 
A3 = " " " " " water leaving 
Then, w -h x = weight of water leaving injector. 



w 



K — K 



* In feeding a boiler undergoing test with an injector taking steam from another 
boiler, or from the main steam pipe from several boilers, the evaporative results 
may be modified by a difference in the quality of the steaip from such source 
compared with that supplied by the boiler being tested, and in some cases the 
connection to the injector may act as a drip for the main steam pipe. If it is 
known that the steam from the main pipe is of the same pressure and quality as 
that furnished by the boiler undergoing the test, the steam may be taken from, 
such main pipe. 



1 84 APPENDIX, 

See that the steam main is so arranged that water of con- 
densation cannot run back into the boiler. 

yill. Duration of the Test. — For tests made to ascertain either 
the maximum economy or the maximum capacity of a boiler, irre- 
spective of the particular class of service for which it is regularly 
used, the duration should be at least 10 hours of continuous run- 
ning. If the rate of combustion exceeds 25 pounds of coal per 
square foot of grate surface per hour, it may be stopped when a to- 
tal of 250 pounds of coal has been burned per square foot of grate. 

In cases where the service requires continuous running for 
the whole 24 hours of the day, with shifts of firemen a number 
of times during that period, it is well to continue the test for at 
least 24 hours. 

When it is desired to ascertain the performance under the 
working conditions of practical running, whether the boiler be 
regularly in use 24 hours a day or only a certain number of 
hours out of each 24, the fires being banked the balance of the 
time, the duration should not be less than 24 hours. 

IX. Starting and Stopping a Test. — The conditions of the boiler 
and furnace in all respects should be, as nearly as possible, the 
same at the end as at the beginning of the test. The steam 
pressure should be the same ; the water level the same ; the fire 
upon the grates should be the sarae in quantity and condition ; 
and the walls, flues, etc, should be of the same temperature. 
Two methods of obtaining the desired equality of conditions of 
the fire may be used, viz. : those which were called in the Code 
of 1885 " the standard method " and " the alternate method,'* 
the latter being employed where it is inconvenient to make 
use of the standard method.* 

X. Standard Method of Starting and Stopping a Test. — Steam 
being raised to the working pressure, remove rapidly all 
the fire from the grate, close the damper, clean the ash pic, 
and as quickly as possible start a new fire with weighed 
wood and coal, noting the time and the water level f while 

* The Committee conclades that it is best to retain the designations "stand- 
ard" and " alternate," since they have become widely known and established in 
the minds of engineers and in the reprints of the Code of 1885. Many engineers 
prefer the " alternate " to the " standard " method on account of its being less 
liable to error due to cooling of the boiler at the beginning and end of a test. 

f The gauge-glass should not be blown out within an hour before the water 
level is taken at the beginning and end of a test, otherwise an error in the read- 
ing of the water level may be caused by a change in the temperature and density^ 
of the water in the pipe leading from the bottom of the glass into the boiler. 



APPENDIX. 185 

the water is in a quiescent state, just before lighting the 
fire. 

At the end of the test remove the whole fire, which has 
been burned low, clean the grates and ash pit, and note the 
water level when the water is in a quiescent state, and 
record the time of hauling the fire. The water level should 
be as nearly as possible the same as at the beginning of the 
test. If it is not the same, a correction should be made by- 
computation, and not by operating the pump after the test is 
completed. 

XI. Alternate Method of Starting and Stopping a Test. — The 
boiler being thoroughly heated by a preliminary run, the fires 
are to be burned low and well cleaned. Note the amount of 
coal left on the grate as nearly as it can be estimated ; note the 
pressure of steam and the water level. Note the time, and 
record it as the starting time. Fresh coal which has been 
weighed should now be fired. The ash pits should be thor- 
oughly cleaned at once after starting. Before the end of the 
test the fires should be burned low, just as before the start, and 
the fires cleaned in such a manner as to leave a bed of coal on 
the grates of the same depth, and in the same condition, as at 
the start. When this stage is reached, note the time and record 
it as the stopping time. The water level and steam pressures 
should previously be brought as nearly as possible to the same 
point as at the start. If the water level is not the same as at 
the start, a correction should be made by computation, and not 
by operating the pump after the test is completed. 

XII. Uniformity of Conditions. — In all trials made to ascertain 
maximum economy or capacity, the conditions should be main- 
tained uniformly constant. Arrangements should be made to 
dispose of the steam so that the rate of evaporation may be 
kept the same from beginning to end. This may be accom- 
plished in a single boiler by carrying the steam through a 
waste steam pipe, the discharge from which can be regulated as 
desired. In a battery of boilers, in which only one is tested, 
the draft may be regulated on the remaining boilers, leaving the 
test boiler to work under a constant rate of production. 

Uniformity of conditions should prevail as to the pressure of 
steam, the height of water, the rate of evaporation, the thickness 
of fire, the times of firing and quantity of coal fired at one time, 
and as to the intervals between the times of cleaning the fires. 



1 86 APPENDIX. 

The method of firing to be carried on in such tests should be 
dictated by the expert or person in responsible charge of the 
test, and the method adopted should be adhered to by the fire- 
man throughout the test. 

XIII. Keeping the Records. — Take note of every event con- 
nected with the progress of the trial, however unimportant it 
may appear. Record the time of every occurrence and the 
time of taking every weight and every observation. 

The coal should be weighed and delivered to the fireman in 
equal proportions, each sufficient for not more than one hour's 
run, and a fresh portion should not be delivered until the pre- 
vious one has all been fired. The time required to consume 
each portion should be noted, the time being recorded at the 
instant of firing the last of each portion. It is desirable that at 
the same time the amount of water fed into the boiler should be 
accurately noted and recorded, including the height of the 
water in the boiler, and the average pressure of steam and tem- 
perature of feed during the time. By thus recording the 
amount of water evaporated by successive portions of coal, the 
test may be divided into several periods if desired, and the de- 
gree of uniformity of combustion, evaporation, and economy 
analyzed for each period. In addition to these records of the 
coal and the feed water, half hourly observations should be made 
of the temperature of the feed water, of the flue gases, of the 
external air in the boiler-room, of the temperature of the fur- 
nace when a furnace pyrometer is used, also of the pressure of 
steam, and of the readings of the instruments for determining 
the moisture in the steam. A log should be kept on properly 
prepared blanks containing columns for record of the various 
observations. 

When the " standard method " of starting and stopping the 
test is used, the hourly rate of combustion and of evaporation 
and the horse-power should be computed from the records taken 
during the time when the fires are in active condition. This 
time is somewhat less than the actual time which elapses be- 
tween the beginning and end of the run. The loss of time due 
to kindling the fire at the beginning and burning it out at the 
end makes this course necessary. 

XIV. Quality of Steam. — The percentage of moisture in the 
steam should be determined by the use of either a throttling or 



APPENDIX. 187 

a separating steam calorimeter. The sampling nozzle should 
be placed in the vertical steam pipe rising from the boiler. It 
should be made of J-inch pipe, and should extend across the 
diameter of the steam pipe to within half an inch of the oppo- 
site side, being closed at the end and perforated with not less 
than twenty J-inch holes equally distributed along and around 
its cylindrical surface, but none of these holes should be nearer 
than \ inch to the inner side of the steam pipe. The calorim- 
eter and the pipe leading to it should be well covered with 
felting. Whenever the indications of the throttling or separat- 
ing calorimeter show that the percentage of moisture is irregu- 
lar, or occasionally in excess of three per cent., the results should 
be checked by a steam separator placed in the steam pipe as 
close to the boiler as convenient, with a calorimeter in the steam 
pipe just beyond the outlet from the separator. The drip from 
the separator should be caught and weighed, and the percent- 
age of moisture computed therefrom added to that shown by 
the calorimeter. 

Superheating should be determined by means of a thermome- 
ter placed in a mercury well inserted in the steam pipe. The 
degree of superheating should be taken as the difference be- 
tween the reading of the thermometer for superheated steam 
and the readings of the same thermometer for saturated steam 
at the same pressure as determined by a special experiment, 
and not by reference to steam tables. 

For calculations relating to quality of steam and corrections 
for quality of steam, see pages 119 and 123. 

Xy. Sampling the Coal and Determining its Moisture,- — ^As 
each barrow load or fresh portion of coal is taken from the coal 
pile, a representative shovelful is selected from it and placed in. 
a barrel or box in a cool place and kept until the end of the 
trial. The samples are then mixed and broken into pieces not 
exceeding one inch in diameter, and reduced by the process of 
repeated quartering and crushing until a final sample weighing 
about ^ye pounds is obtained, and the size of the larger pieces 
are such that they will pass through a sieve with J-inch meshes. 
From this sample two one-quart, air-tight glass preserving jars, 
or other air-tight vessels which will prevent the escape of moist- 
ure from the sample, are to be promptly filled, and these sam- 
ples are to be kept for subsequent determinations of moisture 
and of heating value and for chemical analyses. During the 



155 APPENDIX. 

process of quartering, when the sample has been reduced to 
about 100 pounds, a quarter to a half of it may be taken for an 
approximate determination of moisture. This may be made by 
placing it in a shallow iron pan, not over three inches deep, 
carefully weighing it, and setting the pan in the hottest place 
that can be found on the brickwork of the boiler setting or flues, 
keeping it there for at least 12 hours, and then weighing it. 
The determination of moisture thus made is believed to be ap- 
proximately accurate for anthracite and semi-bituminous coals, 
and also for Pittsburg or Youghiogheny coal ; but it cannot be 
relied upon for coals mined west of Pittsburg, or for other coals 
containing inherent moisture. For these latter coals it is impor- 
tant that a more accurate method be adopted. The method 
recommended by the Committee for all accurate tests, whatever 
the character of the coal, is described as follows : 

Take one of the samples contained in the glass jars, and 
subject it to a thorough air-drying, by spreading it in a thin layer 
and exposing it for several hours to the atmosphere of a warm 
room, weighing it before and after, thereby determining the quan- 
tity of surface moisture it contains. Then crush the whole of it by 
running it through an ordinary coffee mill adjusted so as to pro- 
duce somewhat coarse grains (less than x'^-inch), thoroughly mix 
the crushed sample, select from it a portion of from 10 to 50 
grams, weigh it in a balance which will easily show a variation 
as small as 1 part in 1,000, and dry it in an air or sand bath at 
a temperature between 240 and 280 degrees ahr. for one hour. 
"Weigh it and record the loss, then heat and weigh it again 
repeatedly, at intervals of an hour or less, until the minimum 
weight has been reached and the weight begins to increase by 
oxidation of a portion of the coal. The difference between the 
original and the minimum weight is taken as the moisture in the 
air-dried coal. This moisture test should preferably be made 
on duplicate samples, and the results should agree within 0.3 
to 0.4 of one per cent., the mean of the two determinations being 
taken as the correct result. The sum of the percentage of 
moisture thus found and the percentage of surface moisture 
previously determined is the total moisture. 

XYI. Treatment of Ashes and Refuse. — The ashes and refuse 
are to be weighed in a dry state. If it is found desirable to 
show the principal characteristics of the ash, a sample should 
be subjected to a proximate analysis and the actual amount 



APPENDIX. 189 

•of incombustible material determined. For elaborate trials a 
complete analysis of the ash and refuse should be made. 

XVII. CaloriJiG Tests and Analysis of Coal. — The quality of the 
iuel should be determined either by heat test or by analysis, or 
by both. 

The rational method of determining the total heat of combus- 
tion is to burn the sample of coal in an atmosphere of oxygen 
gas, the coal to be sampled as directed in Article XY. of this 
code. 

The chemical analysis of the coal should be made only by an 
expert chemist. The total heat of combustion computed from 
the results of the ultimate analysis may be obtained by the 
use of Dulong's formula (with constants modified by recent 

determinations), viz. : 14,600 + 62,000 U^-^) + 4000 .S', 

in which (7, II, 0, and S refer to the proportions of carbon, hy- 
drogen, oxygen, and sulphur respectively, as determined by the 
ultimate analysis.* 

It is desirable that a proximate analysis should be made, 
thereby determining the relative proportions of volatile matter 
and fixed carbon. These proportions furnish an indication of 
the leading characteristics of the fuel, and serve to fix the 
<j1.iss to which it belongs. As an additional indication of the 
characteristics of the fuel, the specific gravity should be deter- 
mined. 

XYIII. Analysis of Flue Gase<. — The analysis of the flue gases 
is an especially valuable method of determining the relative 
value of different methods of firing, or of different kinds of fur- 
naces. In making these analyses great care should be taken to 
procure average samples — since the composition is apt to vary 
at different points of the flue (pp. 128 and 129). The com- 
position is also apt to vary from minute to minute, and for this 
reason the drawings of gas should last a considerable period of 
time. Where complete determinations are desired, the analyses 
should be intrusted to an expert chemist. For approximate 
determinations the Orsat t or the Hempel % apparatus may be 
used by the engineer. 

*Favre and Silberraan give 14,544 B.T.IT. per pound carbon ; Berthelot 14,647 
B.T.U, Favre and Sllberman give 62,032 B.T.U. per pound hydrogen ; Tliomsen 
'«1,816B.T.U. 

f See R. S. Hale's paper on "Flue Gas Analysis," Trans. A. S. M. E., vol. 
3:viii., p. 901. 

:j:See Hempel's "Methods of Gas Analysis" (Dennis' Translation). 



IQO APPENDIX. 

For tlie continuous indication of the amount of carbonic aci(T 
present in the flue gases, an instrument may be employed which, 
shows the w^eight of the sample of gas passing through it. 

XIX. Smoke Observations. — It is desirable to have a uni- 
form system of determining and recording the quantity of smoke 
produced where bituminous coal is used. The system com- 
monly employed is to express the degree of smokiness by means 
of percentages dependent upon the judgment of the observer. 
The Committee does not place much value upon a percentage 
method, because it depends so largely upon the personal ele- 
ment, but if this method is used, it is desirable that, so far as 
possible, a definition be given in explicit terms as to the basis 
and method employed in arriving at the percentage. The actual 
measurement of a sample of soot and smoke by some form of 
meter is to be preferred. 

XX. Miscellaneous. — In tests for purposes of scientific re- 
search, in which the determination of all the variables entering 
into the test is desired, certain observations should be made 
which are in general unnecessary for ordinary tests. These are 
the measurement of the air supply, the determination of its 
contained moisture, the determination of the amount of heat 
lost by radiation, of the amount of infiltration of air through 
the setting, and (by condensation of all the steam made by tlie 
boiler) of the total heat imparted to the water. 

As these determinations are rarely undertaken, it is noi 
deemed advisable to give directions for making them. 

XXI. Calculations of Efficiency. — Two methods of defining and 
calculating the efficiency of a boiler are recommended. They are : 

. -f +1, -u -i , _ Heat absorbed per lb. combustible 

^ ~~ Calorific value of 1 lb. combustible 

^ ^^ . r n 1 -1 1 i Heat absorbed per lb. coal 

2. Efficiency of the boiler and grate = ,^p., — r^ -, W-pr y 

-^ ^ Calormc value oi 1 lb. coal 

The first of these is sometimes called the efficiency based on 
combustible, and the second the efficiency based on coal. The 
first is recommended as a standard of comparison for all tests, 
and this is the one which is understood to be referred to when 
the word "efficiency" alone is used without qualification. The 
second, however, should be included in a report of a test, to- 
gether with the first, whenever the object of the test is to deter- 
mine the efficiency of the boiler and furnace together with the 



APPENDIX. 



i9t 



grate (or mechanical stoker), or to compare different furnaces^, 
grates, fuels, or methods of firing. 

The heat absorbed per pound of combustible (or per pound 
coal) is to be calculated by multiplying the equivalent evapora- 
tion from and at 212 degrees per pound combustible (or coal) by 
965.7. 

XXII. The Heat Balance. — An approximate " heat balance," or 
statement of the distribution of the heating value of the coal 
among the several items of heat utilized and heat lost may be 
included in the report of a test when analyses of the fuel and of 
the chimney gases have been made. It should be reported in 
the following form : 

Heat Balance, or Distribution of the Heating Value of the Combustible. 
Total Heat Value of 1 lb. of Combastible B. T. U. 



Heat absorbed by the boiler = evaporation from and at 212 

degrees per pound of combustible x 965.7. 
Loss due to moisture in coal = percent, of moisture referred 

to combustible -f- 100 x [(212 - + 966 + 0.48 (r- 

212)] (^ ~ temperature of air in the boiler-room, T = 

that of the flue gases). 
Loss due to moisture formed by the burning of hydrogen 

= per cent, of hydrogen to combustible -r- 100 x 9 x 

[ (212 - 4- 966 + 0.48 {T - 212)]. 
Loss due to heat carried away in the dry chimney gases = 

weightof gasper pound of combustible x 0.24 x {T — t). 

CO 
5.f Loss due to incomplete combustion of carbon = 



3. 



4. 



per cent, C in combustible 
100 



CO2 + CO 



x 10,150. 



Loss due to unconsumed hydrogen and hydrocarbons, to 
heating the moisture in the air, to radiation, and unac- 
counted for. (Some of these iosses may be separately 
itemized if data are obtaiued from which they may be 
calculated.) 

Totals 



B. T. U. Per CenL 



100.00 



*The weight of gas per pound of carbon burned maj'^ be calculated from the gas analyses as 
follows : 

Dry gas per pound carbon = 11 ^^i + 8 O + 7 (CO + N)^ ^^ which CDs, CO, O, and N are the- 

o (OOg + CC}) 
percentages by volume of the several gases. As the sampling and analyses of the gases in the 
present state of the art are liable to considerable errors, the ret^ult of this calculation is usually 
only an approximate one. The heat balance itself is also only approximate for this reason, as well 
as for the fact that it is not possible to determine accurately the percentage of unburned hydrogen 
or hydrocarbons in the flue gases. 

The weight of dry gas per pound of combustible is found by multiplying the dry gas per pound 
of carbon by the percentage of carbon in the combustible, and dividing by 100. 

tC02 and CO are respectively the percentage by volume of carbonic acid and carbonic oxide in 
the flue gases. The quantity 10,1.50 = No. heat imits generated by burning to carbonic acid one- 
pound of carbon contained in carbonic oxide. 

XXIIT. Report of the Trial. — The data and results sliould be 
reported in the manner given in either one of the two following; 



192 APPENDIX, 

tables, omitting lines where the tests have not been made as 
elaborately as provided for in such tables. Additional lines may- 
be added for data relating to the specific object of the test. The 
«xtra lines should be classified under the headings provided in 
the tables, and numbered as per preceding line, with sub letters 
a, &, etc. The Short Form of Keport, Table No. 2, is recom- 
mended for commercial tests and as a convenient form of 
abridging the longer form for publication when saving of space 
is desirable. For elaborate trials, it is recommended that the 
full log of the trial be shown graphically, by means of a chart. 

TABLE NO. 1. 

Data and Results of Evaporative Test, 

Arranged in accordance witli the Complete Form advised by the Boiler Test 
Committee of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Code of 1899. 

Made by. of boiler at to 

determine 



Principal conditions governing the trial 



Kind of fuel * 

Kind of furnace 

State of the weather. 



Method of starting and stopping the test (" standard " or " alternate," Art. X 
and XI. , Code). 

1. Date of trial 

2. Duration of trial hours. 

Dimensions and Proportions. 

(A complete description of the boiler, and drawings of the same if of unusual 
type, should be given on an annexed sheet. (See Appendix X.) 

3. Gi^ate surface width length area sq. ft. 

4. Height of furnace ins. 

5. Approximate width of air spaces in grate in. 

6. Proportion of air space to whole grate surface per .cent. 

7. Water-heating surface sq. ft, 

8. Superheating surface " 

9. Ratio of water-heating surface to grate surface — to 1. 

10. Ratio of minimum draft area to grate surface 1 to — 

* The items printed in italics correspond to the items in the " Short Form of Code." 



APPENDIX. 193 

Average Pressures. 

11. Steam pressure hy gauge lbs. per sq.in. 

12. Force of draft between damper and boiler ins. of water, 

13. Force of draft in furnace " " 

14. Force of draft or blast in ashpit " " 



Average Temperatures. 

15. Of external air deg. 

16. Of fireroom 

17. Of steam 

18. Of feed water entering heater , 

19. Of feed water entering economizer 

20. Of feed water entering boiler 

21. Of escaping gases from boiler 

22. Of escaping gases from economizer 



Fuel, 

23. Size and condition 

24. Weight of wood used in lighting fire lbs. 

25. Weight of coal as fired * " 

26. Percentage of moisture in coal f per cent. 

27. Total weight of dry coal consumed lbs. 

28. Total ash and refuse " 

29. Quality of ash and refuse 

30. Total combustible consumed lbs. 

31. Percentage of ash and refuse in dry coal per cent. 



Proximate Analysis of Coat. 



Of Coal. Of Combustible. 

32. Fixed carbon per cent. per cent. 

33. Volatile matter 

34. Moisture ** 

35. Ash " 



100 per cent. 100 per cent. 
36. Sulphur, separately determined " " 



* Including equivalent of wood used in lighting the fire, not including unburnt coal withdrawn 
from furnace at times of cleaning and at end of test. One pound of wood is taken to be equal to 
0.4 pound of coal, or, in case greater accuracy is desired, as having a heat value equivalent to the 
evaporation of 6 pounds of water from and at 212 degrees per pound. (6 x 965.7 = 5,794 B. T. U.) 
The term "as fired " means in its actual condition, including moisture. 

t This is the total moisture in the coal aa found by drying it artificially, as described in Art. 
XV. of Code. 

2 



104 APPENDIX. 

Ultimate Analysis of Dry Coal. 

(Art. XVII., Code.) 

Of Coal. Of Combustible. 

37. Carbon (C) per cent. per cent. 

38. Hydrogen {H) 

39. Oxygen (0) 

40. Nitrogen {N) 

41. Sulphur {8) 

42. Ash 



43. Moisture in sample of coal as received, 



100 per cent. 100 per cent. 



Analysis of Ash and Refuse. 

44. Carbon per cent, 

45. Earthy matter " 

Fuel per Hour. 

46. Dry coal consumed per hour Ibs^ 

47. Combustible consumed per hour '• 

48. Dry coal per square foot of grate surf ace per hour " 

49. Combustible per square foot of water-heating surface per hour. *' 

Calorific Value of Fuel. 
(Art. XVII., Code.) 

50. Calorific 'oalue by oxygen calorimeter, per lb. of dry coal B.T.U. 

51. Calorific value by oxygen calorimeter, per lb. of combustible «<«<«< 

52. Calorific value by analysis, per lb. of dry coal * 

53. Calorific value by analysis, per lb. of combustible 



( ( It (( 



ity of Steam. 

54. Percentage of moisture in steam per cent. 

55. Number of degrees of superheating deg. 

56. Quality of steam (dry steam = unity). (For exact determina- 

tion of the factor of correction for quality of steam see Ap- 
pendix XVIIl.) 



Water. 



57. Total weight of water fed to boiler \ lbs. 

58. Equivalent water fed to boiler from and at 212 degrees '* 

59. Water actually evaporated, corrected for quality of steam " 

* See formula for calorific value under Article XVTI. of Code, also pag:e 7. 

t Corrected for inequality of water level and of steam pressure at beginning and end of test. 



APPENDIX. 195 

60. Factor of evaporation * lbs. 

^1. Equivalent water evaporated into dry steam from and at 213 

degrees. \ (Item 59 x Item 60.) ** 

Water 'per Hour. 

•62. Water evaporated per hour, corrected for quality of steam ** 

■63. Equi'oale at evaporation per hour from and at 212 degrees]; ** 

*64. Equi'oalent evaporation per hour from and at 312 degrees per 

square foot of water-heating surface f ** 

Horse-Power. 

65. Horse-power developed. (34|- lbs. of water evaporated per hour 
into dry steam from and at 212 degrees, equals one horse- 
power) I H. P. 

■66. Builders' rated horse-power " 

67. Percentage of builders' rated horse-power developed per cent. 

Economic Results. 

68. Water apparently evaporated under actual conditions per pound 

of coal as fired. {Item 58 -^ Item 25. ) lbs. 

69. Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 degrees per pound of 

coal as fired. \ {Item 61 -^ Item 25.) " 

70. Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 degrees per pound of dry 

coal, t {Bern 61 -^ Item 27.) 

71. Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 degrees per pound of 

combustible, f {Item 61 -f- Item 30.) " 

(If the equivalent evaporation, Items 69, 70, and 71, is not cor- 
rected for the quality of steam, the fact should be stated). 

Efficiency. 
(Art. XXL, Code.) 

73. Efficiency of the boiler y heat absorbed by the boiler per lb. of com- 
bustible divided by the heat value of one lb. of combustible § per cent, 

73. Efficiency of boiler, including the grate; heat absorbed by the 
boiler, per lb. of dry coal, divided by the heat value of one lb. of 
dry coal " 

* Factor of evnporation = w^i in which H and h are respectively the total heat in steam of 

the average observed pressure, and in ■water of the average observed temperature of the feed. 

t The symbol " U. E.'' meaning "Units of Evaporation," may be conveniently substituted for 
the expression "Equivalent water evaporated into dry steam from and at 213 degrees," its defini- 
tion being given in a foot-note. 

X Held to be the equivalent of 30 Iba. of water per hour evaporated from 100 degrees Pahr. into 
dry steam at 70 lbs. g'auge pressure. (See Introduction to Code.) 

§ In all cases where the word combustible is used, it means the coal without moisture and ash, 
but including all other constituents. It is the same as what is called in Europe " coal dry and free 
from ash." 



196 APPENDIX. 

Cost of Evaporation. 

74. Cost of coal per ton of Ihs. delivered in holier room % 

75. Cost of fuel for evaporating 1,000 lbs. of water under observed 

conditions % 

76. Cost of fuel used for evaporating 1,000 lbs. of water from and at 

212 degrees % 

Smoke Observations. 

77. Percentage of smoke as observed per cent 

78. Weight of soot per hour obtained from smoke meter ounces 

79. Volame of soot per hour obtained from smoke meter cub. in. 

Methods of Firing. 

80. Kind of firing (spreading, alternate, or coking) 

81. Average thickness of fire 

83. Average intervals between firings for each furnace during time 

when fires are in normal condition 

83. Average interval between times of levelling or breaking up 

Analyses of the Dry Oases. 

84. Carbon dioxide (CO2) per cent, 

85. Oxygen (0) 

86. Carbon monoxide {CO) " 

87. Hydrogen and hydrocarbons '* 

88. Nitrogen (by difference) {N) 

100 per cent. 
TABLE NO. 2. 

Data and Results op Evaporative Test, 
Arranged in accordance with the Short Form advised by the Boiler Test Com- 
mittee of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Code of 1899. 

Made by on boiler, at to 

determine 

Kind of fuel 

Kind of furnace 

IMetliod of starting and stopping the test ("standard" or " alternate," Art. X. 

and XL, Code) 

Grate surface sq. ft» 

Water-heating surface " 

Superheating surface " 

Total Quantities. 

1. Date of trial 

2. Du ration of trial hours. 

3. Weight of coal as fired * lbs. 

4. Percentage of moisture in coal * per cent. 

5. Total weight of dry coal consumed lbs. 

6. Total ash and refuse " 

7. Percentage of ash and refuse in dry coal per cent. 



* See foot-notes of Complete Form. 



APPENDIX. 197 

8. Total weight of water fed to tae boiler * lbs. 

9. VN'ater actually evaporated, corrected, for moisture or super- 

heat in steam *"• 

10. Equivalent water evaporated into dry steam from and at 213 

degrees * ** 

Hourly Quantities. 

11. Dry coal consumed per hour lbs. 

12. Dry coal per square foot of grate surface per hour " 

13. Water evaporated per hour corrected for quality of steam. ... ** 

14. Equivalent evaporation per hour from and at 212 degrees *. . . ** 

15. Equivalent evaporation per hour from and at 212 degrees per 

square foot of water-heating surface *..... ** 

Average Pressures, Temperatures, etc. 

16. Steam pressure by gauge lbs. per sq. in. 

17. Temperature of feed water entering boiler deg. 

18. Temperature of escaping gases from boiler " 

19. Force of draft between damper and boiler ins. of water. 

20. Percentage of moisture in steam, or number of degrees of 

superheating per cent, ordeg. 

Horse-Power. 

21. Horse-power developed (Item 14 -f- 34^) * H. P. 

22. Builders' rated horse-power " 

23. Percentage of builders' rated horse-power developed per cent. 

Economic Results. 

24. Water apparently evaporated under actual conditions per 

pound of coal as fired. (Item 8 -r- Item 3) lbs. 

25. Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 degrees per pound of 

coal as fired.* (Item 9 -7- Item 3) " 

26. Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 degrees per pound of " 

dry coal.* (Item 9 -r- Item 5) " 

27. Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 degrees per pound of 

combustible.* [Item 9 -f- (Item 5 — Item 6)] " 

(If Items 25, 26, and 27 are not corrected for quality of steam, 
the fact should be stated.) 

Efficiency. 

28. Calorific value of the dry coal per pound B. T. U. 

29. Calorific value of the combustible per pound " " " 

30. Efficiency of boiler (based on combustible) * per cent. 

31. Efficiency of boiler, including grate (based on dry coal) " 

Cost of Exa/poration. 

32. Cost of coal per ton of lbs. delivered in boiler-room $ 

33. Cost of coal required for evaporating 1,000 pounds of water 

from and at 212 degrees $ 

* See foot-notes of Complete Form. 



198 



TABLE I. 



TABLE I.— HEAT OF COMBUSTION OF SUBSTANCES. 



Calories. 

Crystallized carbon toCOa.. 7859 

•* " to CO... 2405 

Amorphous carbon to CO3.. 8137 

to CO... 2489 

Graphite to CO3 7901 

Petroleum coke to COa 8017 

Gas coke to CO3 8047 

•Carbon vapor to CO2 11328 

Coal (pure and dry) 7800 to 9000 

Lignite (pure and dry) 6000 to 7000 

Beech charcoal 7140 

Soft charcoal 7071 

Cellulose 4200 

Soft resinous wood 5050 

Hard wood^ 4750 

Peat 5940 

•Cane sugar 3961 

Asphalt 9532 

Pitch 8400 

Naphthalin 9690 

Paraffin 1 1 000 

Tallow 9500 

Sulphur 2500 

Petroleum 9600 to 1 1000 

."Schist-oil 9000 to loooo 

Heavy coal gas oil 8900 

Cotton oil. 9500 

Rape oil 9489 

Olive oil 9473 

Sperm oil loooo 

Hydrogen 3450O 

Carbonic oxide 2435 

Marsh gas . 13343 

defiant gas 12182 

Acetylene 12142 

Carbon vapor (diamond). . . 11134 

Coal gas 4440 to 7370 

Petroleum gas 10800 

Air producer gas 773 to 1370 

Water gas 2350 to 3032 

Mixed gas 1015 to 1548 



B. T. U. 
I4146 

4329 
14647 

4480 
14222 
14503 
14485 

20390 

14040 to 16200 

10800 to 12600 

12852 

12723 

7560 

9090 

8550 

10692 

7130 

17159 
15120 

16842 

19800 r— 
1 7 100 

4500 

17280 to 19800 
16200 to 18000 

16020 

1 7 100 

17080 

1 705 1 

18000 

62100 

4383 
24017 
21898 
21856 
20041 
7990 to 12266 

19440 

1391 to 2466 
4230 to 5458 
1827 to 2786 



Berthelot 



Mahler 
F. &S. 

Calculated. 
Page 174. 
Various 

Schvvackhofer 
< < 

Berthelot 
Gottlieb 

Bainbridge 

Berthelot 

Slosson & Colburn 

Anon. 

Berthelot 

Mahler 

Stohmann 

Berthelot 

Various 

SteClaire Deville 

Anon. 

Stohmann 

Gibson 
Berthelot 



Various 

Anon. 

Various 



TABLE II. I99 

TABLE II.— THERMOMETER REDUCTION TABLES. 
A. Centigrade to Fahrenheit. 



c. 


F. 


c. 


F. 


C. 


F. 


C. 


F. 


I 


1.8 


10 


18 


100 


180 


1000 


1800 


2 


3.6 


20 


36 


200 


360 


2000 


3600 


3 


5-4 


30 


54 


300 


540 


- 3000 


5400 


4 


7.2 


40 


72 


400 


720 


4000 


7200 


5 


9.0 


50 


go 


500 


goo 


5000 


gooo 


6 


10.8 


60 


108 


600 


1080 


6000 


10800 


/ 


12.6 


70 


126 


700 


1260 


7000 


12600 


8 


14.4 


80 


144 


800 


1440 


8000 


14400 


9 


16.2 


go 


162 


goo 


1620 


gooo 


16200 



B. Fahrenheit to Centigrade. 
F. C. F. C. F. C. F. 



I 


f 


10 


5f 


100 


55f 


1000 


5551 


2 


4 


20 


Hi 


200 


iii^ 


2000 


iiii^ 


3 


If 


30 


i6f 


300 


i66f 


3000 


i666f 


4 


2f ' 


40 


22| 


400 


222f 


4000 


2222f 


5 


2| 


50 


27i 


500 


277I 


5000 


2777I 


6 


3f 


60 


33f 


600 


333f 


6000 


33331 


7 


3f 


70 


38f 


700 


388f 


7000 


3888f 


8 


4f 


80 


44| 


800 


444f 


8000 


44441 


9 


5^ " 


go 


50 


goo 


500 


gooo 


5000 



Having given Centigrade degrees, obtain from Table A tJie 
■corresponding equivalents, and to their sum add 32°. 

Example : Find Fahrenheit degrees corresponding to 
416° C. 

720+ 18 + 10.8 +32 == 780.8. 

Having given Fahrenheit degrees, subtract 32° and find the 
value in Table B corresponding to the remaiyider. 

Example : Find Centigrade degrees corresponding to 
— i6°F. 

-16-32= -48, -48°F. :z.-(22| + 4i)=-26|. 



200 



TABLES III, IV: 



TABLE III.— THEORETICAL FLAME TEMPERATURES. 



CtoCO 

C to COa 

CO to CO, 

Hydrogen 

Marsh gas, CH4. . 
defiant gas, C2H4 
Acetylene, C2H2. . 
Benzin, CeHe. . . . 

Producer gas 

Coal gas 

Petroleum 

Naphthalin 

Wood 

Lignite (dry) 

Coal (bituminous). 
Sulphur to H2SO4. 



In Oxygen. 


In Air. 


Centigrade. 


Fahrenheit. 


Centigrade. 


Fahrenheit^ 


4265° 


7677" 


1462° 


2639° 


1 0000 


18000 


2718 


4892 


7010 


12618 


3000 


5400 


6727 


12108 


2674 


4813 


7971 


14348 


2245 


4036 


9659 


17286 


3000 


5400 


1 1 300 


20340 


3400 


6120 


9350 


16830 


2790 


5022 


2500 


4500 


1200 


2160 


5400 


9720 


2700 


4860 


7558 


13604 


2400 


4320 


9444 


17000 


2730 


4914 


5800 


10440 


2280 


4104 


3000 


5400 


1200 


2160 


3800 


6840 


1500 


2700 


2300 


4140 


1060 


1908 



TABLE IV.— WEIGHT AND VOLUME OF GASES. 



Name. 



Air 

Nitrogen 

Oxygen 

Hydrogen 

Carbonic acid. . . 
Carbonic oxide. . 
Carbon vapor. . . 
Aqueous vapor. 
Sulphurous acid. 
Ethylene, C2H4. 
Methane, CH4 • 
Acetylene, CaHg 
Benzine, CeHs. . 
Ethane, CaHa . . 



Weight. 



Volume. 



Per Cubic 


Per Cubic 


Per Kilogram' 


Per Pound 


Metre in 


Foot in 


in Cubic 


in 


Kilograms. 


Pounds. 


Metres. 


Cubic Feet. 


I. 29318 


0.08073 


0.773 


12.385 


1.25616 


0.07845 


0.796 


12.763 


1.4298 


0.08926 


0.699 


11.203 


0.08961 


0.00559 


II. 160 


178.83 


1.9666 


0.12344 


0.508 


8.147 


1. 2515 


0.07817 


0.800 


I 2 . 80O' 


1.0727" 


0.06696 


0.932 


14.930^ 


0.8047 


0.05022 


1.242 


19.912 


2 . 8605 


0.1787 


0.349 


5.596 


I. 2519 


0.07814 


0.799 


12.797 


0.7155 


. 04466 . 


1-397 


22.391 


I. 1900 


0.07428 


0.840 


13-456 


3.3333 


0.208 


0.303 


4.808 


I. 3415 


0.08565 


0.746 


11.950 



TABLE V. 



201 



6 








5 


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a 





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o 






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u 


CO 




VC 


oc 




lo 






°5 


3 




•jiv 


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d'Z 








oc 




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s. g, s 


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202 



TABLE VI. 





T3 








1 ., XT) tn Tt M M 


M 


»-~ 


n 






n ^ Tfo w vo o^ 


en 


c 


§ 






•jonpoja -° Ji <> ri- r^ <> f^ 


r^ 


u 


0- 




tl 


(jt, COOO C<-5 M en 


a- 


CO 


u 




< 


^ M iri w 


t-( 




S. 






IT) w -i- -1- O 


en 


o 


if 




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w *:; ^ r^ r^ M in 

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-t 


roii 


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(jP- en vo CO en '-' 


oo 


D 




3 






"-^ M rt <N 








o o o -h en 


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flj 3 


e 






.r ■" oo CO r-- o^ N 




4;^ 


o 

u 


c 


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X) "u .... 

- w c> O"- <N CO r-^ 

(jPh m c^ m r^ vO 


u-i 


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o o 




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t>. 


U 


u ° 




ffi 


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X3 *j QO o en "^ CO 


en 




c 






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od 


^ 


6 








en 


O 








c^ fr\ (J^ t l-l 


~ON 


U^ 


3 




•saiqtisnq 


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r^ 


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> 




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.^t, ^ M H. r^ <^ 


c5 


Pi 
< 

C/5 
C/) 






















. " =^0-0 


cO 








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m 


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•I- 


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O 




3 




M cn M 


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t^ en w O O 


oo 


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a 

o 


c 


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j3 o en lo o O 


M 

t 


b 


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^ 


o 






>^ 






w 




X 

o 




r^ en HH o O 


CO 






•uaSAxQ 


(/)• vo en r^ O O 


01 


:^ 






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cc 




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en 










f CO rtcc ■^o 


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c 










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> 








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Q 










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rt en 








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en M W M II 


II 


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01 


W 












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1 






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M M C^ M 


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01 


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-1 




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c3 03 g3 >^ .1^ 














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TABLE VII. 



203 



w 




s 




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fe 


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1 







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a> c^ vo 





rt- CO . • • 


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c< 





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rv 3 




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m" Tt * • 


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M 


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t^coTj-ci p<oo HI wo 

^t t^ M M M O rf Tj-O 
COOO I^CT'C^ C<"iCOCO 



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O M m O^ CO CTnOO ■^ O 

mOooqocoOcoOco 



Mco o O i-ivo comco 
O coo m "^ O TT CO rf 
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O CO M N O c^ vn TtOO 
O •*-i-0O H- 1-OCOCOM 

tOCOK- M ^O '^H.CO 



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204 



TABLE VIII, 



= 5-5 ii 









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II II II 



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TABLES IX, X, XI. 



205 



TABLE IX.— TABLE OF SPECIFIC HEAT OF GASEOUS PROD- 
UCTS OF COMBUSTION REFERRED TO THE PROPORTION 
OF CARBONIC ACID. 



Proportion of Specific 




Proportion of Specific 


Carbonic Acid. Heat. 




Carbonic 


Acid. Heat. 


5 per cent 0.312 




II 


per 


cent 0.319 


6 '^ *' .... 0.314 




12 


< ( 


** 0.320 


7 '' " .... 0.315 




13 


< i 


'' 0.321 


8 '* '* .... 0.316 




14 


( I 


'' .... 0.322 


9 *' '' .... 0.317 




15 


( ( 


'' .... 0.323 


10 ** '' 0.318 










LE X.— HEAT OF VAPORIZATION OF WATER AT 0' 




230° C 








Temperature. 








Heat of 


Centigrade. Fahrenheit. 




Vaporization. 





32 






606.5 


100 


212 






537.0 


230 


456 






676,6 



Latent heat of vaporization, 966 (Regnault). 



TABLE XL— SPECIFIC HEAT OF WATER (REGNAULT). 



Temperature. Specific Heat. 

0° 1. 0000 

10 1.0005 

20 1. 0012 

30 1.0020 

40 1.0030 

50 1.0042 

60 1.0056 

70. 1.0072 

80. 1.0098 

90 1. 01 09 

100 I. 0130 



Temperature. Specific Heat. 

110° I-OI53 

120 1. 0177 

130 1.0204 

140 1.0232 

150 1.0262 

160 1.0294 

170 1.0328 

180 1.0364 

190 1. 0401 

200 1.0440 



io6 



TABLES XII, XIIi: 



TABLE XII. 



-VOLUME OF OXYGEN TO FORM WATER WITH THE 
HYDROGEN OF COAL. 



Per Cent of Hydrogen. 



Oxygen in Litres per 
Kilogram of Coal. 



I 55-9 

2 112 

3 i68 

4 223 

5 279 

6... 335 

7 391 

8 446 

9. 502 



Oxygen in Cubic Feet 
per Pound of Coal. 

.896 

1.792 

2.699 

3.585 
4.481 

5-397 
6.283 
7.170 
8.096 



TABLE XIII.— QUANTITY OF AIR REQUIRED FOR PERFECT 
COMBUSTION OF FUELS. 



Fuel. 


Composition. 


Air per— 


Carbon. 


Hydrogen. 


Oxygen. 


Nitrogen. 


Kilogram. 


Pound. 


Coke 


98.0 

95.4 
87.0 
85.0 
84.0 
77.0 
90.0 
71.0 
58.0 
50.0 
85.0 
68.7 
58.0 
34.0 
1 .0 


0.5 

2.2 

5.0 

50 

6.0 

50 

2.0 

5.0 

6.0 

6.0 
14.0 
22.5 
23.7 

5-9 

5.0 . 






cu. metres 

10.09 

9.01 

8.93 
8.68 

8.79 
7.67 
8.53 
7.02 

5-75 

4.57 

10.76 

14.20 

14.51 

3.16 

.72 


cu. feet 
162 06 


Coal, anthracite 

bituminous . . 

coking 

cannel 


1.8 
4.0 
6.0 
8.0 
15.0 


0.5 


144.60 
143.40 
139.41 
141.07 
123.15 
133.90 
112.43 
92.36 
73.36 
172.86 

227.93- 

233.06 

50.70 

11.56 




smithy 








19.0 

30.0 

42.0 

I.O 

I.O 

1.4 
43.0 

21.0 




Peat dry. ... 




Wood, dry 

Petroleum 

Natural gas 

Coal gas 


I.O 

{ ' . ■ 

6.2 

3.8 
3.4 

69.0 


Water gas 


Producer gas 



TABLES XIV, XV. 20/ 

TABLE XIV.— RELATION BY WEIGHT AND VOLUME OF THE 
COMPONENTS OF AIR. 

Air contains by volume : 

Nitrogen 78.35 

Oxygen 20.77 

Aqueous vapor o. 84 

Carbonic acid 0.04 

100.00 
Deducting the carbonic acid and aqueous vapor, we have : 
Nitrogen.. . .By volume: 79.04 By weight : 76.83 

Oxygen '' '* 20.96 '' '' 23.17 

100.00 100.00 

Ratio of nitrogen to oxygen : 

By volume, — = 3-77I- By weight, — = 3.32. 

Ratio of air to oxygen : 

A I Y A \ t- 

By volume, — = 4-77I- By weight, — == 4-3I5- 

Ratio of air to nitrogen : 

Air A.ir 

By volume, — — = 1.265. By weight, -— = 1.302. 

TABLE XV.— IGNITION POINT OF GASES (Mayer and Miinch).* 

Marsh gas, CH, 667"" C. 

Ethane, C^H^ 616 

Propane, C3H 547 

Acetylene, C.H, 580 

Propylene, C^H^ 504 

* Berichte der deutschen Chemische Gesellschaft xxvi, 2421. 



208 TABLE XVI. 

TABLE XVI.— SPECIFIC HEAT OF WATER. 



Degrees 






Rowland 


Bartoli 






Centi- 


Regnault.i 


Rowland. 2 


(corrected) 


and 


Ludin.5 


Griffiths.* 


grade. 






Pernet.3 


Stracciati.'i 






O 


1. 00000 






1.0080 


1.0075 




I 


1.00004 






1.0072 


1.0068 




2 


1.00008 






1.0065 


1. 0061 




3 


1. 00013 






1.0059 


1.0054 




4 


1. 00017 






1.0052 


1.0048 




5 


1.00022 


1.0056 


1.0054 


1.0046 


1 . 0042 




6 


1.00027 


1.0049 


1.0047 


1.0040 


1.0036 




7 


1.00032 


1.0044 


1.0040 


1.0034 


1. 0031 




8 


1.00038 


1.0037 


1.0033 


1.0028 


1.0026 




9 


1.00043 


1.0033 


1.0026 


1.0023 


1. 0021 




TO 


1.00049 


1.0026 


1.0019 


1. 0018 


I. 0017 


1.002070 


II 


1.00055 


I. 0021 


1. 0014 


i.oof3 


1. 0013 


1. 001636 


12 


I. 0006 I 


1. 0016 


1. 0012 


1.0009 


1.0009 


I. 001242 


13 


1.00067 


1. 0012 


1.0009 


1.0005 


1.0006 


1.000828 


T4 


1.00074 


1.0007 


1.0005 


1.0002 


1.0003 


1. 000414 


15 


1.00080 


1. 0000 


1. 0000 


I. 0000 


1. 0000 


1. 000000 


i6 


1.00087 


0.9995 


0.9995 


0.9998 


0.9998 


0.999716 


17 


1.00094 


0.9991 


0.9993 


0.9997 


0.9996 


0.999432 


i8 


I.OOIOI 


0.9986 


0.9988 


0.9996 


0.9994 


0.999248 


^9 


I. 00109 


0.9981 


0.9984 


0.9995 


0.9992 


0.998864 


20 


I.OOI16 


0.9977 


0.9979 


0.9994 


0.9991 


0.998880 


21 


1. 00123 


0.9972 


0.9977 


0.9993 


0.9991 




22 


1. 00132 


0.9970 


09974 


0.9993 


0.9990 




23 


I. 00140 


0.9967 


0.9974 


0.9994 


0.9990 




24 


1. 00148 


0.9965 


0.9972 


0.9995 


0.9989 




25 


I. 00156 


0.9963 


0.9972 


0.9997 


0.9989 




26 


1. 00165 


0.9960 


0.9969 


0.9998 


0.9989 




27 


1. 00174 


0.9958 


0.9967 


1. 0000 


0.9989 




28 


1. 00183 


0.9958 


0.9967 


1.0002 


0.9990 




29 


1. 00192 


0.9956 


0.9967 


1.0005 


0.9990 




30 


1. 00201 


0.9958 


O.99D9 


1.0008 


0.9990 




31 


1. 00210 


0.9958 


0.9972 


I.OOII 


0.9991 




32 


1.00220 


0.9958 


0.9974 


1. 0014 


0.9992 




33 


1.00230 


0.9960 


0.9977 


1. 0017 


0.9993 




34 


1.00240 


0.9960 


0.9979 




0.9995 




35 


1.00250 


0.9963 


0.9981 




0.9997 




36 


1. 0026 1 


0.9963 


0.9981 




0.9999 





^ C = I + 0.00004^ -f- 0.000009Z''. 

2 American Journal of Science and Arts, 1879. 

3 Ueber die Aenderung der specifischen Warme des Wassers mit Aenderung der Tempera- 
tur. Vierteljahrsschrift der Naturforschergesellschaft in Zlirich, Jahrg. XLI (1896). 

* Sulla Variabilita del Calore Specific© dell' Acqua. Estratto dal Nuovo Cimento, Set. 3 
Vol. XXII. 

5 Inaugural-Dissertation, Zurich, 1895. 

* Philosophical Magazine, Nov. 1895. 



FUEL TABLES. 



These tables contain all the available information covering 
the data required which have been published to date. They 
contain analyses of the fuels, and the heat units as determined 
by the authors, whose names are given. In some cases it has 
been necessary to recalculate the results as published by the 
experimenters to conform with the standard adopted. This 
applies especially to the coals and solid fuels, the data for 
which are given based on pure dry coal, i.e., on the combus- 
tible present. If the actual test of the sample as given is 
desired, it will be easy to make the necessary deductions. 
Some of the cokes and some of the natural gases have been 
calculated, the calculated results being within the limits of 

experimental error in these cases. 

209 



2IO 



FUEL TABLES. 



o « 



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coc^ cococococococo'+cococow cocoes 


u 


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212 



FUEL TABLES, 



J5 (U (U 






^U- iflU---- 



'^^ 



(U (U (U ^" ^r 

^ c c c "i* 5i 

^u ^u ^u e^^B^^ - 



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— r-» O c^ M 

CO -t t«^ r^ 



si 



OO -tcoc^co --i-O^r^M cncn-^oo Oc^O 

r^oo CT^CO "-I O wr^co cnvo tn co m r^ r-^o -i- w o fn 
■^cnc^ci c«-icncotncnc<^c*^c<-)cnc<^mcnc*^t<-5'1-1-rf-t 



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vO O <~^0 »r>i-H ino cni-i O ir>Oc<i'1-TtM O Oco vnri-c<^u-)0 fOoo 

M r^ r^ c< <N en M cno 'I- '^ u-i en Tf rtvo o o O CO r^ o^co o co tnco 

CO r^r^r^r^r^r^r^r^r^r>.t^r>.t^f^r>.r^r^co r^-r^r^r^r^f^t^i^ 



■qsv 



\r, tnoo N 



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3.H 

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bio c 
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COAL. 



215 






c o 






o o 



vn M o HI O 00 mi-tNO^MMNi^'Tf u->oo Tfoo in co c<^ m 



xDOoo Tj-oi-^-^H-i ir>0 i-i i^u-^O O cnr^W OmcnM O i^ 
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•qsv 



d c>o 00 



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•J31BA\. 



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tAo vAm xnd^d^M fi d^od d^od ■^i--«d t-^ d^cncJ «nd^r-~-d 



•anqdins 



Omint-i tn'^^o OcnMco ■^oo cnr^ 
OMcnodcn'^iHd^O'^-NMNdMMd 



•usSoJii^ 



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. 1) lU 

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^ C h d 

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'^ fl) r! V Jr ^ 






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"5 







> 


c^coO r^r^Oiococ^ M 
C^M C0ir)'<^0 000 M 


inri-"^r^vO inr^in 
M Tj- r^o -^oo t^vo 


r^TfM cooo Noco Tj-co 

COCOCO N^COCOCOm 


l_,Mt^l-lO»-'>0>-l 

01 cocon-Tj-r^coco 





r^invo M 00 coo O'^ 
01 rx r^ CO "^ -rfco 00 in 


Tt C> r^o 
C^O CO CO r^ t~^ in r^ 


CO w coo ■<* 
Tt CO coco Tj- CO in in ino 


-^ooo N a^coM CO 

vO COCO'^l-M COCOCO 



c3 :: 






ro-" O -. - 






O 7^ 



|q 



s§1 



•n 5 'C i^ « -K S 

?^ :2 .^ ^ I =2 g :^ -^ g ^ I - 



o a 



^ - - - - 





Tf rj- (S (X) 

CO in in 
in 01 OS CO t^ 
CO -Tj- •^ CO w 


in cnco 

CO CO 01 
CO 01 01 Ti- Tj- 





OMMOoiinoicoi-ir^ 
01 O'^0coi^oioor~<>-i 
inooo cornoi Q O^O^O 



'^'^r»0 ■rfco O^ \rt O^ O^ 



Mvo t^'1-r^oo ■Tj-inr> 



OOOOOJOOOOO 



in in 
CO Tf 01 


8 


8 


8 


8 


in 

CO M 




^^ 


2:2. 
CO •^ 


o^ 01 
CO '^ 


in r^ Tf M 

t CO ^ Tt 


in 
rt-co 


w r^ rj- in 
■^ CO !>• m M 01 M 



M 




01 








c>o 

in in 


t^ 

rt -* 'st- 



^ o 
c/:U 



fcJO 
C3 



3 3 -^ r ^ 



„' < ^ > g ^ Ph 



224 



FUEL TABLES. 





1^' 

WcAJ 



o w 

II 



O O O O M o 
O oo O i-i CO O 
to tJ- U-) M IT) N 
IT) inO iri ino 



OmO'tOOO'-I- 
CO O-^w cnc<-)N M 



CO O O O rfoo N 
Tj- M Tj- o cn O M 
O u-)oo vO "^ "=t O 
U-) vn in m in u-j lo 



o o o o o o 

O O O "-> "^ o 

in vo c^ ■^ O O 

CO CO Oco CO O^ 



OtOOOOOO 
WO O cninO inm 
oocoo ^inin^'^l- 
cococooooocoooco 



O O O O O O O 
O in O a c<-)0 ^ 
coo CO r^vo in en 
CO oo CO CO CO CO oo 



■qsv 



•J3JBM 





•u3Soj;i|sj 


^. 


CJ 

O r- M 






rt Oin O -1- en 
00 o O CO oo r^ 


O O O Oco r^vO 




O 


o o 


^ 






O O O O O O 


O O O O O O O 




•jnqdps 
'uaSAxQ 


vO CO 


cno 


:?o 


1^ 

in 


CO M CO -^ in O 
CO in f-> r^ vn M 


O r^ -t a in Ttoo 
r^co O i-i r^co \0 


w 
u 


O en 


t-1 M 


"t 


M 


en 


M M 


oo o in in a M CO 


•uaSXxQ 
















Di 




















•uaSoipi^H 


O O 


(N r^ 




■^ 




tJ-OO O 00 m O 

O m r^ O en M 


in en r^ enoo m r~» 
en O " w O rl- r^ 




^ ^ 


■^ en Tt 


■ri- 


■^ 


o Tt en envo -^ 


O en '^ en ■^ in en 






"rt 


rt N 


in o 


in 


O 


O 

M 


CO O o CO Tt i-« 
O O Tf M M r^ 


in O O in r>. in in 
O N oo i^ c^ r^ in 




c 


e2 


oo OCO CO 


Oco 


o 


M -1- O en r-- en 

OCO oco CO o 


1-0 O H- c< M r-. 
CO oo o Ooo oo CO 




> 


O O 


en CO 




o 




O M r^ in o o 


O en r^ inoo w r^ 
m O in i-H o O O 




a! 


^vO 


r^ M 




en 




i^ (N en O eni^ 


in o "^ en cno m 




i 


oo N 


(N M 




'i- 




c^ c^ i-t M en "^ 


O r^ M o o 'i-oo 
en w eno m r-- ^^t 






fc 


00 oo 


r^co 




O 




oo oo CO CO 00 CO 


oo O CO CO inO 
vO r-^ r^ t^ r^ r^oo 






1-1 h-l CO C/2 



o - 



2.1 



• C 

• pi 













- - - >^ 



b^ 



muuQ 



COAL. 



225 



CO 1 



2- ^ 

C3 I 



s 


S 


n3 

C3 


and 


^ 


W W 


c/5 


CO ~' CO 



o _1> 
Ifl J^ 

II 

si 



M 00 O C< 
IT) O c<^ O 
U-) Tt T"- M 

to IT) in ir> 



'^OOOC^OOOOwOOO^OOO 
CO 'i- 01 O r^o 00 c^ en "^ o) O cnao m o m 
i-i OO^vDM u->xr)0 O 000 C^O^O Noo 



O O Tl- O 

\0 u-> t-> ^ 
00 (X> 00 00 



oOvoOOOOOOOOO'OOOOOvO 
OOOO^OOOmiooO vooo O O 00 
■^c<-)^<NOc^»-ia^ coco o r^oo 00 000 r^ 

CO CO o O O O^oo 00000000000000000000 



•J3?HAV 



•usiJ§oa;i>v[ 



M ON Tl- CT> 
rt t^ vO 

6 d M d 


0^ 
M d 


M 

00 en ir> 


CO 
1^ 



•jnqd[ns 
'uaSoajifsl 



t^ vT) •Tf coo 00 O m ^ r^oo r> tn 



•usSXxo 







CO COO 

000 Tf r^ 


OoOt-iO'^Ocoi-ir^MOinOC^ON 
OMTj-MMOMr^NOOwinTj-o 



00 




CO CO »n CO 


inm'^'sf'^coxn'^inininvnrl-Ttin 


■* 




"rt 


00 u->o in 
M in c^ 


CO <x> t~^ 00 00 <N coo 0^ coco 
M -^ r-~coinO N c* O'^'Tfcoo 


'^ 







M r^ 
000 00 Qn 


in inoo MOO r^-rtoc^r^ r^co 0^ 
cor^oo O^CT^O^r^oooooooocooocooo 


00 
00 


"o 
> 


00 CO 


00 r-- coco »n CO 
ino 00 ^ CO r^ Ooo in 


M 




CO T '^ 


ooOO'^O^M r^Minoo 

HI MM |-IMMMI-( 


'^ 


i 


Tt in CO 
CO c^ 


•^'^Mcot^in inr^'^ inoo 


CO 
00 




£ 


r^ N 

Qo r^ 00 


a> TfCO 00 '^ M Tj- M M 00 

00 r^co oo'Ttt-^ t^t->.r^t->t^ 


CO 



^ .s 



a 






U 



o a .ti >^ fl 
cj oj o Js <u 

L?? C IJ S ^ "S 



c3C/}(y^ S 






o 

O 






^ o 



226 



FUEL TABLES. 



GERMANY. 
Published in this form by 



Name. 



A. Ruhrcoal. 

1. Altenessen 

2. Bonifacius 

3. Concordia 

4. Consolidation 

5. Dahlhausen-Tiefbau 

6. Dannenbaum 

7. Dannenbaum... , 

8. Ewald 

9. Friedrich Ernestine 

10. Frohliche Morgfensonne. . 

11. General , 

12. Graf Beust 

13. Hansa 

14. Holland 

15. Horde , 

16. Hugo 

17. Lothringen , 

18. Mont-Cenis 

19. Pluto 

20. Recklinghausen 

21. Mathias Stinnes 

22. Shamrock II 

23. Shamrock 

24. Unser Fritz 

25. Viktoria Mathias 

26. Grube Vollmond 

27. Westende 

28. Wilhelmine Viktoria 

29. Zollverein 

B. Saar Coal 
T. Camphausen Level III 

2. Dudweiler 

3. Frankenholz 

4. Friedrichsthal 

5. Heinitz I 

6. von der Heidt 

7. Itzenplitz 

8. Itzenplitz 

9. Konig 1 

10. Kohlwald 

11. Kreuzgraben, Level I 

12. Louisenlhal 

13. Maybach, Level II 

14. Puttlingen 

15. Reden. 

16. St. Ingbert Gas-coal 

17. " " Heating-coal.. 



Composition of Air-dry Coal. 




80.35 

78.26 

77-77 

76.20 

77.29 

69.07 

79.15 

72.96 

76.69 

73.48 

80.43 

70-33 

7Q.67 

68.67 

72 

81.49 

81.26 



1 Dulong formula for calculating heat-units (Verbandsformel) 



COAL, 



227 



— Continued. 

request of Professor H. Bunte. 



Composition 


of Pure 


Coal. 




c* 



i 


Calories of 
Fuel. 


Calories of 
Combustible. 








-a . 






u 




^ 




c 


1 


C G 

re (u 
So 


c 




J3 

re 
U 


i 
^ 


bh 


V 

S 


bi 


a 


w 


% 





1) ir 


1 


4J 



73 





a 


i 


c 

3 


15 


a 

3 


(J 


E 





en 


u 


£ 


> 


Q 


u 


Q 


6 


a 


86. ig 


5-24 


7-37 


1.20 








7310 


73.34 


8271 


829S 


X 


86 


23 


4-59 


7-33 


1.85 


82.27 


75.67 


"16.64 


7467 


7537 


8097 


8172 


2 


86 


03 
27 


5 14 
5-17 


7-95 
6.53 


0.88 








8008 


8078 
7827 


8194 
8371 


8265 
8370 


3 

4 


87 


1.03 


l^-^l 


70.04 


23.71 


7828 


90 


79 


4.42 


3-41 


1.38 


84.78 


77-52 


14.16 


7829 


7816 


8546 


8532 


5 


8q 


65 


4.62 


4.62 


i.ii 


77.12 


73-97 


21.04 


8026 


S080 


8459 


8516 


6 


88 


85 


4.83 


5-24 


r.o8 








7926 




8434 





7 


8-, 




5-38 
5.28 


10.86 


0.66 








7549 
7731 


7523 
7736 


7928 
8278 


7899 
8283 


8 
9 


".5 
86 


19 


7-33 


1.20 


70.08 


65.12 


"28 .'38' 


91 


40 


4.51 




1.28 


85.18 


83.55 


14.12 


8438 


8441 


8644 


8646 


10 


86 


31 


5-07 


6.97 


1.65 


70.54 


66.92 


28.04 


7824 


7840 


8248 


8265 


II 


82 


24 


5-13 


10 95 


1.68 


74.43 


71.14 


24.98 


7488 


7486 


7794 


7792 


12 


84 


08 


5-53 


10 


•39 


68.30 


64.96 


29.62 


7650 




8101 




13 


88 


55 


5-07 


5-31 


1.07 


78.82 


73.96 


20.19 


7973 


7900 


8475 


"8398 


14 


89 


62 
81 


4.12 

5-55 


4-59 


1.67 


86.16 
65.70 


76.32 
61.36 


13.04 
32.65 


7435 
7820 


7482 


8326 

8225 


8379 


15 


84 


9 


64 


16 


87 


52 


4.82 


6.58 


1.08 


76.28 


72.19 


22.23 


7804 


7840 


8275 


8313 


17 


83 


14 


5-40 


9-33 


2.13 


7^-83 


53.96 


25.67 


6368 


6424 


8016 


8086 


18 


84 


60 


5.28 


9.70 


0.42 








7688 


7662 


8043 


8016 


19 


86 


33 


5-43 


6.72 


1.52 


71.38 


"he. go 


"27. '18 


7859 


7S71 


8363 


8376 


20 


89 


05 


4.90 


4.38 


1.67 


78.73 


71.70 


19.99 


7800 


7842 


85 ■■3 


8560 


21 


89 


55 


5-21 


3-95 


1.29 


78.46 


71.53 


20.44 


7953 


7978 


865s 


8682 


22 


88 


22 


5 -04 


^5-39 


1-3^ 


78.36 


74.13 


20.59 


7992 


8015 


8444 


8468 


23 


85 


62 


5-55 


8 


"83 


65.90 


61.78 


32.22 


7780 




8288 




24 


84 


31 


5 01 


9-05 


1.63 


73.74 


70.46 


25.28 


7620 


"7637" 


7965 


7983 


25 


87 


39 


5-23 


5-96 


1.42 


77-56 


69.7s 


21.52 


7674 


7679 


8415 


8420 


26 


89 


43 
44 


5 23 


3.66 


1.68 
903 


80.27 
67.40 


72.43 
62.67 


18.5s 
30.75 


7881 
7700 


7907 


8670 
8254 


8699 


27 


85 


5 


S3 


28 


82 




5-32 


11.03 


1.48 








6825 


■■6899" 


7837 


7922 


29 










8=; r,A 


5-52 
5-50 


8.33 
9.22 


0.91 
1.05 








7749 
7527 


7518 
7538 


8224 
8110 


7983 
8122 


I 


84 


25 


65.49 


59-72 


33.19 


2 


82 


25 


5-48 


11.36 


0.91 


62.70 


59.55 


35- 00 


7420 


7509 


8286 


7957 


3 


83 


21 


5-45 


10.13 


1. 21 


60.83 


54.43 


37.14 


7296 


7343 


7862 


8032 


4 


84 


45 


5-43 


9-33 


0.79 


66.40 


59.92 


31.60 


7397 




8095 




5 


80 


95 


4-93 


12.81 


I-3I 


61.70 


50.93 


34-40 


6424 


"6478" 


7556 


7619 


6 


86 


23 


5-H 


7.10 


1-53 


74.40 


68.11 


23.68 


7567 


7571 


8256 


8260 


7 


79 


97 


5.86 


12.62 


1-55 


59-37 


54.28 


.36.95 


7051 


7019 


7753 


7718 


8 


83 


32 


5.65 


8.75 


2.28 


61.07 


54.32 


37-72 


7473 


7571 


8127 


8233 


9 


81 


37 


5-57 


12.03 


1.03 


60.21 


54-56 


35-74 


7016 


6989 


7796 


7766 


10 


85 
80 


46 
43 

80 


5.56 
5-34 
5-54 
5-39 


8.46 
13.03 
8.92 

12-73 


0.52 
1 .20 








7750 
6635 
7678 
6492 


7622 
6663 

7763 
6533 


8245 
7619 
8183 
7680 


8109 
7652 
8273 
7720 


_ 










84 
80 


0.74 
0.94 








13 
H 


94 


64.95 


53-72 


30.12 


80 


79 


5.60 


12.51 


I TO 


62.30 


56.08 


34-25 


6974 


6971 


7744 


7740 


15 


85 


38 


5-23 


8.7t 


0,68 


68.46 


65.63 


29.81 


7752 


7798 


8133 


8181 


.6 


85.75 


5.59 


7.66 


1.00 


68.50 


64-51 


30.26 


7872 


7847 


8314 


8287 


17 



8100C + 29ooo( H — -— ) 4- 2500S — 600W 



228 



FUEL TABLES. 



GERMANY 



C. Upper Silesia Coal. 



Grube Deutschland 

(joitesberger Viktoria, (run of mine). . 

Guidogrube 

Grube Konigin Louise 

Mathildengrube 

Paulusgrube 

Schacht Vereinigt Feld 



D. Saxon Coal. 

Kaisergrube Gersdorf b. Oelsnitz 

Vereinigt Feld Bokwa-Hohndorf 

Zwickau-Oberhchndorf Wilhelmschacht. 

E. Upper Bavaria Molasses Coal. 

Haushamer Large Coal 

Miesbacher Coal 

Penzberger (run of mine) 

F. Saxon Brown Coal. 

" Alfred " near Calbe a. S 

" Bach " near Ziebingen 

Meuselwitzer Revier " Fortschritt " 

Gnadenhutie b. Klein-Muhlingen 

"Greppen"' 

" Luizkendorf " 

" Marie Louise " 



G. Peat and Lignite. 

Peat, " Pschorrschwaige ■". 

Compressed Peat, " Hofmark-Steinfels " ., 
Lignite, Jbsefszeche in Schwanenkirchen. . 
Peat, " Ostrach " 



H. Coal Briquettes. 

Dahlhausen Tief bau 

Haniel& Co 

Hugo Stinnes, Strassburg 

Stachelhaus & Buchloh 



J. Brown-coal Briquettes. 

Stetnpel ' ' Furst Bismarck " 

Wurfel-Brikett C* Use, Bergb.-Act.-Ges. in 

Gross-Raschen-Senftenberg 

Wurfel-Brikett S* Rechenberg & Cie., 

Grube Mariengliick 

Stempel ' " Rositz " 

Gewerkschaft •' Schwarzenfeld ■" 

Stempel " Siegfried " 

Zeche " Waldau " 

K. Gas-coke. 

" Consolidation " (Ruhr) . 



Rhein, Elbe und Alma" (Ruhr).. 

"Ewald" (Ruhr) 

" Bonifacius " (Ruhr) 

" Camphausen " (Saar) 

" Heinitz " (Saar) 

" Konigin Louise " (Upper Silesia). 



Composition of Air-d 


ry Coal. 






c 


c 








A 


• 


t. 


c ^r 








^ 


o 





^r P 








X5' 


u 


•0 
X 


m 




1 


< 


S: 

6 


71.90 


4.56 


17-37 


1-15 


1-.58 


3-44 


94.98 


81.12 


4.24 


4-93 


1.23 


i.bs 


6.83 


91-52 


77-79 


4.85 


10.07 


0.57 


1.67 


5-05 


93.28 


70.60 


4.30 


8-77 


1-57 


2.28 


12.48 


85.24 


7«.3i 


4-70 


9.87 


0.75 


2.05 


4-32 


93.63 


73-96 


4.40 


15.1b 


1.41 


1-95 


3.12 


94-93 


70.17 


5-17 


9-39 


1.26 


8.14 


5-87 


85 -99 


71-45 


4-76 


10.06 


1.30 


8.91 


3-52 


87.57 


74-63 


4-97 


9.60 


i.bo 


3-50 


5-50 


91 .00 


75-95 


5-35 


11.17 


0.63 


3.68 


3.22 


93.10 


58.01 


4.42 


12.02 


4-B7 


7-37 


13-31 


79.32 


51.9-^ 


3-75 


13-44 


5-31 


17.12 


8.4b 


74.42 


47-78 


3.83 


10.92 


5-24 


10.18 


22.05 


67.77 


41.41 


3.29 


9.84 


2. 12 


36.26 


7.08 


56.66 


35-93 


2.56 


13.20 


0.99 


45-33 


1-99 


52.68 


44-47 


3-67 


14.69 


1.72 


27.13 


8.32 


64.55 


^7-16 


3-39 


9.62 


1.66 


38.68 


9-49 


51.83 


43-37 


3-25 


17-54 


1.93 


22.85 


11.06 


66.09 


31.12 


2.79 


9-42 


3.87 


47-45 


5-35 


47.20 


45.40 


3-73 


10.72 


3-59 


29.27 


7.29 


63-44 


38.76 


3.66 


21.27 


0.26 


29.14 


6.91 


63-95 


49.31 


4-4« 


24.07 


0-39 


16.47 


5.28 


78.25 


28.80 


2.54 


9-55 


2.87 


40.35 


15.89 


43.76 


45-93 


4.70 


29.18 


0.61 


14.06 


5-52 


80.42 


83.24 


4-05 


3-13 


1.26 


1.06 


,.6 


91.68 


81.96 


4-15 


3.14 


0.88 


1.77 


8.10 


90.13 


80.85 


4-45 


4.82 


1.19 


1.76 


6-93 


91-31 


82.69 


4.10 


3-6o 


1.36 


2.10 


6.15 


91.75 


54-35 


4.66 


15.21 


2.28 


15-77 


7-73 


76.50 


55-91 


4.07 


19.14 


0.78 


14.77 


5.33 


79.90 


51-74 


4.24 


18.57 


1.00 


18.95 


5.50 


75.55 


51.73 


4-32 


16.37 


1.50 


19.40 


6.68 


73.92 


48.20 


4.20 


15-84 


2.98 


10.26 


18.52 


71.22 


53-66 


4-58 


15-59 


2.58 


13.65 


9.94 


76.41 


50.97 


4.20 


15-25 


2.52 


16.57 


10.49 


72.94 


8s. 18 


0.70 


4.04 


0.87 


1.79 


7.42 


90.79 


85.30 


0.81 


4.80 


0.88 


1-71 


6.50 


91.79 


80.68 


0.90 


3-74 


1. 17 


2-33 


II. 18 


86.49 


82.03 


1.07 


3.61 


1.02 


1-53 


10.74 


87.73 


82.91 


1. 00 


2.60 


1.43 


1.79 


1C.27 


87.94 


88.08 


0.78 


2.8s 


0.81 


0.96 


6.S2 


92.52 


86.35 


0.54 


2.01 


0.96 


3-73 


6.41 


89.86 



Dulong formula for calculating heat-units (Verbandsformel): 



COAL. 



229 



— Co7ttinued. 









1 






u' 


Calories of 


Calories of 




Composition 


of Pure Coal. 1 




c 



V 


Fu 


el. 


Combustible. 






c 


c 






a! 












c 
1 


^ 


c g, 


3 




U 


JJ 


bi 


§ 


u 


s 


1) 


2 

-a 


^.i 


0. 




1 


^ 


c 


'C u 
C 4J 





2. t; 


a 


c4 




5S^ 


"5 






£ 


> 


3 

Q 




3 


-^ u 


3 


7<;.70 


4.80 


18.29 


1. 21 


65.73 


62.29 


32.69 


6536 


6881 


6891 


7254 


I 


88.64 


4.63 


5-39 


1.34 


81.46 


74-63 


16.89 


7643 


7646 


8362 


8365 


2 


83. 2g 
82.83 


5.20 
5-04 




0.61 








7346 
6671 


7429 
6662 


7895 
7847 


7983 
7837 


3 
4 


10.29 


1.84 


■■;r.;8" 


58.70 


26.54 


83.64 


5.02 


10.54 


0.80 


. 67.82 


63-50 


30.13 


7355 


7414 


7868 


7931 


5 


77.91 


4.64 


15.97 


1.48 


64.19 


61.07 


33.86 


6739 


6804 


7112 


7180 


6 


81.60 


6.01 


10.92 


1.47 


60.50 


54-63 


31-36 


6825 


6801 


7994 


7966 


7 


81.59 


5-44 


11.49 


1.48 


59-75 


56.23 


31-34 


6782 


6750 


7805 


7769 


I 


82.00 
81.58 

73-14 


5.46 
5.74 

5-57 


10.55 


o!68 








7162 
7292 

5623 


7169 
7299 

5623 


7893 
7856 

7144 


7901 

7864 

7144 











3 

I 


15.15 


6.14 


56.50 


43-19 


36.13 


69.77 


5-04 


18.06 


7.13 


45-35 


36.89 


37-53 


4836 


4851 


6512 


6532 


2 


70.50 


5-65 


16.12 


7-73 


55.13 


33.08 


34-69 


4655 


4710 


6959 


7040 


3 


73.08 


5-81 


17.37 


3-74 


30-35 


23.27 


33.39 


3787 


3741 


7068 


6987 


I 


68.20 


4.86 


25.06 


1.88 


26.44 


24.45 


28 


23 


2927 


2913 


6072 


6046 


2 


68.89 


5-69 


22.76 


2.66 


35-59 


27.27 


37 


28 


4014 


4059 


6471 


6541 


3 


71.70 


6.54 


18.56 


3.20 


28. 30 


18.81 


33 


02 


3454 


3426 


7112 


7058 


4 


65.62 


4.92 


26.54 


2.92 


38.51 


27.45 


38 


64 


3722 


3870 


5854 


6063 


5 


65-93 


5-91 


10.96 


8.20 


24.98 


19.63 


27 


57 


2800 


2818 


6536 


6574 


6 


71-57 


5.88 


16.89 


5.66 


34.90 


27.61 


35-83 


4285 


4319 


7032 


7085 


7 


60.61 


5-72 


33.26 


0.41 


29.60 


22.69 


41.26 


3261 


3283 


5383 


5407 


I 


63.02 


5-73 


30.76 


0.49 


31.25 


25-97 


52.28 


4331 


4364 


5661 


5704 


2 


65.81 


5. 81 


21.82 


6.56 


34-00 


18.11 


25.65 


2552 


2578 


6385 


6421 


3 


57-11 


5.84 


36.29 


0.76 


33-16 


27.64 


52.78 


3956 


3993 


5024 


5070 


4 


90.79 


4.43 


3.41 


1.38 


84.78 


77-52 


14.16 


7829 


7816 


8546 


8532 


I 


90.94 


4.60 


3.48 


0.98 


85.60 


77.50 


12.63 


7734 


7804 


8593 


8671 


2 


88.55 


4.87 


5-28 


1.30 


76.35 


69.42 


21.89 


7685 


7616 


8429 


8353 


3 


90.13 


4.47 


3-92 


1.48 


83.92 


77-77 


13.98 


7778 


7822 


8491 


8:39 


4 


71-05 


6.09 


19.88 


2.g8 


39-87 


32.14 


44.36 


5165 


509S 


6S76 


6787 


I 


70.00 


5-09 


23-95 


0.98 


40.17 


34.84 


45.06 


4947 


4899 


6303 


6243 


2 


68.49 


5.61 


24.58 


1.32 


38.92 


33.42 


42.13 


4659 


4583 


6318 


6217 


3 


69.98 
67.68 


5-84 
5.90 


22.15 
22.24 


2.03 
4.18 








4770 
4561 


4788 
4523 


6610 


6634 
6438 


4 

5 


49.40 


30.88 


40.34 


6491 


70.23 


5-99 


20.40 


3.38 


40.78 


30.84 


45-57 


5092 


5188 


6784 


6910 


6 


69.88 


5.76 


20. gi 


3-45 


40.09 


29.60 


43-34 


4756 


4725 


6659 


6616 


7 


93.82 


0.77 


4-45 


0.96 


98.00 


90.58 


0.21 


6967 


7057 


7686 


7785 


I 


92.93 


0.83 


5.23 


0.96 


96.25 


89 


75 


2.04 


6982 


7071 


7617 


7716 


2 


93.28 


1,04 


4.32 


1.36 


95.16 


93 


98 


2-51 


6675 


6716 


7734 


7781 


3 


93.50 


1.22 


4.12 


1.16 


95-30 


84 


56 


3.17 


6841 


6851 


7S08 


7819 


4 


94.28 


1. 14 


2.96 


1.62 


95.41 


85 


14 


2.80 


6935 


6936 


7899 


7900 


5 


95.20 


0.84 


3.08 


0.88 


98.30 


91 


78 


0.74 


7271 


7268 


7S65 


7862 


i5 


96.09 


0.60 


2.23 


1.08 


94-34 


87.93 


1-93 


7080 


7111 


7903 


7938 


7 



8100C + 29000^ H — o" / "^~ 2500S — 600W 



230 



C en 



EU 



FC/£L TABLES. 



3 - - 






NO "^ r^ o en IT) 
O O vO r^ r^oo O 

-* 't -f 't M C4 M 



O N r^ cnoo CO 00 N o oo rfoo o ■^ 

CO Mvo <^ <:> o M Nu-)0 r^vo o N 
■-imC^OO'1-u^ONhhOc<^Oin 
Tt-i-rtcococ<^cnc^ cncn^j ^r, ^ xn 



a^ "^O 



CO '-I »- M O >_ _ 

r^oo CO c/j |-^ r^o 



coOOioOcJOooMNco t^co r^ 
r^ -i- N mo oo O r^o oo o n r^ rt- 
coco C>P< <N -)-«r>M cnci c^ Tj-r-^t<^ 



•qsv 



•J35T2M 



•jnqdins 



•uaSoj^ijsi 



•uaSXxQ 



•uaSojpAH 



^ 


d 


d 


d 


d 


d 


d 


d 


d 


d 


d 


d 


d 


d 


^QO 


r^ 


o^ 


o^ ^ 


r^ 


u-)CO 


^ 


coo 


c^ 


o 


u-^O O 


•-1- M 


•^ 


•Tt CO c^ 


rt to M 


N 


^ 


M 


Cl 


O 


o 


o 


o 


O 


O 


o 


o 


O 


o 


o 


o 


•^ 


'"' 






























r^ 


O O CO 


n 


coo 


r^ 


0) 


o 


o 


CO 






XT, 


i/) 


N 


■* rf W 


en 


M 


CO lo 


o^ o^ 






CO 


t^ 


r^ 


in 

M 




M 


o 

M 


o 




J^ 


CO 



idO O O CO Tl" CO 
CO ino CO tt CO O 

■4 XT) IT) tA '^ -4 CO 



lO'^rfrJ-r^TfT^Tt-'^Tj-rtTf-^ 



O 

Is <^ 






-5 ^S' 



f^ =q M E? .^ ii £ 



"S -^ -^ 

S N tfl 



^C/2 



^ - ^-^ <u 



s ^ 



i". b aJ Sf^ b2. 






• o •" W>'7! <U -I-' C 'O tut) »-r<^ o 



I 



COAL. 



231 



■ 


1 

X! 
< 


:0 

1 


Bunte 

<< 

S.-K. andM.-P. 

Bunte 

S.-K. andM.-D. 

Schwackhofer 


. . 


- 


. . 


. 


>• 


c/5w 










C JJ 

"5 CO 

si 





00 

M 


cnoo i-icnrtooo O O OvOO wco «r>o fcoc^cnx/>o^N cn^t 
r-.r^ir)QO M incoM O '-' c^ ooocoo cncno--, r->MO woo 




U 


l-H 


cnOMnOoo 'l-vnvo tni^voTj-r-,inr^o r-«0 

MOOMr)0^<0'OiO'-t-Tj-NMOMOooOoocoxr)COt-HOC>cn 
coco t^r^cococo t^cocooocooooocooo r^co r^r^r^oocooo r^co 




•qsv 






•J3;bm 




1 


•anq 


dps 


d 


cncnlr>O^M^^c■*or^c^O '^ 
wr^TfM om cncno ^0 N 


1 

< 



•aaSoj^i^ 


CO 

6 


CO •^■oo U-) m coco mOOOOC^coO moo co ci 
O^ M « xnco ■^N loino 'i-i^N Cl N cncoc<^c<^coO 

'd^o6d^'^M'!tcdTj-MN(Nc^odddddcddM 


1-- en 


•n3j 


§Axo 


q 


r^(N r>.mcnM u-)0^o c^<>dvd 

1-1 OMT) C>0O VOCO N a^ M 

CO d M c^* d M od 4 CO 

M M M M H-l M l-( 


•uaSojp^H 


00 

en 


"^O MOO iDMoo TfO eoiooo r^OvOvO O too O moo r>.coco O 
»r> m ID en M t->o cno r^ OO t^O d invo i^ -^-O m cq c^ cnoo 





H 


eg 


00 Ti-M oi^coM Tioo r^M r->avooo cocoo c^ 00 O co 

00mC^mC^rj-c0-*00rH0u^0^v0'^MOMC^M'^a^C4O>-'r^ 

rt-^md codo d cococoMod M cncoM copJ c>M c^-^'^corA 
coooooooooco r^oOQOcooooo r^oooooooooooo t^oooooooooooo 




> 


aNr^o^»nr-<>ritn 

00 d d c>o d d 

M C^ C^ M M C^ d 




E 


r-^inTftnOOT r^ 
mi-HOOMcnO'^ 00 

M ei c<-)vd M 06 en 
vOiovooOvOm CO 


, 


c 
.c 

c 
a 
E 

;2 




c 

.2 


^" 1 


m 


*i 

c 


»— ( 
1— 1 






c 
< 


c 
c 

1 

c 


c 

1 


3 


a; 

1 






g-i 

'l3 


=3 ^ 

il=J 



232 



FUEL TABLES. 



"o <J 


t3 


i2-2 


H 


■5 t^ 


m 


^i 




i/i 


rtS 




(U 




EU 


3 



r^O M »rii-i Oco cnO OO c^t^ -tvO u-) o O^ 10 en c<-ioo MOO-1-Oc^c^m 
rj- '^ r^ •rj- c>i c^ a^co vn a^ o^ O t*^ coco r^ <N o i-^ r^ -^ 000 u-> m o en cno 1- 
00 M •^M -i-M r^oo vocnooo or^o^cnu-iinu-io 'I'OO vn^^coo ow c^ 



-1-iHcxD -^qnO "h ocnii^-f 'l-co o vo in (-1 10 01 o^co r^ m t~^ vn r-^ '^o "t ^ 
0>-i(Ni-icnO<NOoo 00 c^ OcnM O m o -^mvc r^O csxnoo^o^N ii 
CO -^O 00 ^M CM O 0>-i ci 040 tno tnmioco rt-t^vo m-for^c^ 0^0» 
oocooo r^oococoooco j^cocooo r^coc» i^i--i^i^r^r^t-Nr^r^r^i-^oo r^t^ 



•qsv 



i->.oo r^N o r^N Tf-1-OM o tnw ir>r->r^in'icncnr^r-»>ntnM m o m rt 
cn(Ncnr~^cnu^^^'i-r~^ooo^l-lI-^a^0^^cnOc^<^^cnr^Ocn'^r^Mooo^^ u^, 
r^rj-cnr^u-joico Mccoao O i-^o3 -^-co iri^j-cnoo ■^voo C^d^o rj-inr^ 



•J31BAV 



(-iMi-iioTi-NtncncnNcsNN'^NOju^ooooMf^vOooo^Mc^cnrj-cn 



•jnqding 



•uaSoJiijsi 



uaSAxQ 



u-)0 en O 000 r^ r^ O O O O^oo w r^ o >-i ci -too OOOOOOcoOOO 



•uaSojpXH 



Ttin'^-j-Tt-ir>rfTfvnTtio^r}-rt'^TfTrrl-Tj-rl-TT'^"<1-'^'^-Tf 






<u o 



r-J - - mvO On 



C/2 

o 



o o 



o o 



<u 



<u 



Q 






.' ^ 

• s 



ti c: S^ >^ t» "JJ ^ 



s 2 --^ ^ rt E S ^ t3 



- r^ 












COAL. 



233 



O 1J 

Si 



•iisv 



•J33B^ 



•jnqdins 



•uaSojjt^ 



•uaSAxQ 



■uaSojpXH 












O r^co 1-1 o O c^ i-i u^ 
O ci 00 O 04 >-i O O 



MOCcnc^MMON 



O r^ O cno M O •'^ 
CO 04 04 M r} O -^O 

XOCOM 1-1 Tt'l-CfjCO 

cooooooDooQOcoco 



ir> O '-I CO •^00 IT) ir> 

u^r->MNOooi-HM 
CO CO 00 00 CO r^oo CO 



en 04 Tf CO rt- en 



vO en "^vo 04 ^ 



04 cn 04 IT) ut -rt- 

O o vo vo r-« 04 

M d M 6 6 M 



O cn M o u->oo vo >■ 
o cn ^ cn cn o^ o 

U-) M M M M d O 



I 04 O 

J MM 



cn'^'^u-iin-^-^'^ 



1 


cn 

06 


CO 1^00 04 00 cn i-^ 
t--0 O^ M l-> N 

M d^ a^ r-> 04 cncd 
O^vO r^ r^co CO CO 


2 cno T}-o 00 0^ 
rr •^ f^ M '^ T Tf 

04 04 006 -^ irivd 
r^ t^o r^ r^ t-^ 


^ 

rt 
1 


d^ 
04 


i^r^OOOOO)cn 
000000 r^co 

d^M m"04 C>tAM 04 

cn 'i- Tt cn 04 M 


Tf cn cn M 
M 04 U-) M cn 

ir> 04 00 d 04 u->o6 
cn 04 cn cn 04 04 




00 

cn 




Mr^O 04 cno^ioTf 
OoocnMOioO'^ 

04 lAo) cn r^od -4 r^ 
CO U-1U-) 10 inooooo 


M too 00 Tj- 

t^ cn tto 04 t^ m 

t-^ t-^O vri d r^ lA t}- 

OOQO lOO lOlDOO 



1^-^040 1000 Zl 

■^co xnco 04 00 •^ rj 



cnco r^ •rfoo r^oo 



cn 



U 



(U OJ ., CO 

^ ^ fc ^-B 

^ ^ S; S^ ?n 

-^ !iJ <" a; ^ >■ 



1/3 C/3 
rs li C ?* -< b<? 






-2 o 

^ fc «^ - 

!" -Q Ti T; 



•« > >^ i^ PS K^ b* -if 



-S ;^ V- c 

.„ <u cS 
^ S S cj2 CXbJO 

O OJ <U r^ >-, &.^ 

dn p^ fL, H H P :> 



§< 



CO M 

\r> o 

cnoo 



§-S 

II 



234 



FUEL TABLES. 



C T3 



03 O w 2i 

o ii u e g 



s- • 


t:) 






05 j3 ■ 


e- 




CO 


C CO 




^i 


« 


« £ 


•c 


S O 




X^ 


o 



i/i O Tf o o 

COvO vO CO IT) 

CO a^oo CO Qo 

PI M CO M O 



i-i c^ O oo -^ 
c^ QO IT) i-i r«. 

CO O CO HH rf 



CO C^ QO ino T -^ 
m CO COCO vnco M 
tn r^ t^ CO -T '^ in 

O O O^ •- c^ ►-, hi 



to m N CO CO 
in O O M C^ 
CO N r-. 1-1 O 
<0 f^ r^ r^vO 



coo 
e^ CO 



r^ O CO i-H o 
\0 O CI c^ CO 
m -t O O O 



CO w O »n O O w 

O O "1 M c^i CO O 
CO O -1- CO O CO "T 
in in ino O O O 



•qsv 



HH CO ■'J- W P4 



"^00 Oco O toco 



•j3;t3A\. 



•jnqdins 



Ti- CO to to 



o o o o o o o 



•uaSojji^ 



•U3S;{xO 



•uaSojpiiH 





o 
U 


O O oo in in 
CO in c^ r^ r^ 

rt w -4- ci CO 

in in in in in 


coo 
t-- O 

in in 


to O 

CO CO 


O -T r^ 
^ r-> O 


O N in O N CO m 

O CO O O CO in w 




ino 

o o 


^ O O 
ino r^ 


O 1-1 i-i ^ -^ CO rj- 


c 
o 

u 


•- a; 

II 


in O C^ in m 
-^ in r^ w M 

moo in r^o 

■T -1- TT rj- Tj- 


r-oo 
in CO 


r^ O 
o r-. 


O O CO 
O W O 


O CO in O CO N m 


•I- CO 

-t CO 


in c> C> 
rt CO M 


O CO CO O ino in 
'^ <N C^ C^ CO C^ a 




■s 


CO -r rt O^ O 
N CO »n r^ -* 

to r^ O^ o^ i-i 

m r;!- "^ •* in 


co C 
in in 


oo in 

T}- CO 


XT, O^ y 
O in O 


CO O O inco '^^ C> 
O -^co O CO inO 




in in 


^ -^ in 


in CO " in 1- O in 
-^ \r, -rt \r\ ino in 



E 



^ 2 o 



o 



p:: 



Is 5 

CC (D C 



03 •? b: w cd -r" J 

r' ™ o O hn <^ i_: 



T3 
>- rt 55 
3 C -^ - 

•2:2 >.' 



CQ 



-i— • — ■ v\j ' rt gJ (U o 



COAL. 



235 



o 
o 



u 



^ H 



Ifl ^ 

u o 



r-^vnr^M (Nr^CT^cnoou-iooior^ooooMi^iriooOoOMf^r-^ 

NmNM (NMNO'-iNi-iNNMMi-ii-iOOONi-'OC^N 



©•^"^IN c<^vr)MMr^Oir>'*u-)u->OC^Ocoi-iOOO->^00 

■^'l-QOM oou-)Mu-)mO'^cocot-iooi-iNC^O~'OaoOini-<c» 

t^ r^ in U-) ooo M ■^oo Mooo OO or-O n -tO en i-t o w co 



O r^ m T)- 



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COAL, 



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uupqumuu 









SPh 

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Q Q W Ph ^ ^^ f£; 



TJ Ph (U 
O) O 

PQ S ^ 



248 



FUEL TABLES. 



-2 Si 5 c 

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13 o CI, o 



^ (U 

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o u 

tn£t 



O) o 



iri O I^ C4 


CO M r^oo 


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r^ ^ u-1 t-i 


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r^ en o c^ o 


-r '^ 'i- in 


en -^ "i- -i- -^ w 


rt -^ CO N O 


•l-T'^Tj-Tt'^'t'^'^'^'^T'^-*'^ 



mt-iinOooOMi-iOO'^ Ooo O N 

01 M M o^oo Ocnl-lOO'-^^-l0^r^^o 

ooooooooooooc> a^oo 
CO CO CO CO r-*oo oococooocooo r^r-^r^. 



qsv 



vO xor^i^mO ■^vno coidn 



•aai^Av 



u^ 


r^ 


N 


vO 


Ti- 


vO 


o 


o 


tnoo 


^ ^ '^r N 


N 


^Tt^T^r^ 




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o 


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tn o 


o 


N 


cn 


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o 


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CO 


oo 


r-. 


r^ 


o 


o 


o 


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<y 


N 


N 


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en -i- 


r^ 




cn 






f> 




N 






\n 




c5 






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•jnqdins 



•uaSojiifj 



•uaSXxQ 



ooooooooooo 



•aaSojpXH 



w 
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vnco en N 


< 


C< M 


N N 


CO en 


Tf cJ en 




o o 


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-)-co 
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en r-^ ^ 
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o o^ 


OCO On 



ir>vO N t^O O G^ "^ O O 

M d 6 >^ 6 6 6 6 6 6 



CO u-)co CO en en N mco O en O m o m 
O m envO m ^too m vr,<i N o e^ c^ m 
MC^e^MciMpic^c^TJ- eno r^ r^ 6 
OG^o^O^O^O^O^O^^cS o^co CO CO QO 






• 00 o • 
> ^ N '-' > 
c3 C^ r^ ^' cs 



5^^ 6 



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rfl O 

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£■■1 

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G G § 2 O 



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249 



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JSl^M 



jnqd[ns 



•uaSoJiT^i 



■uaSiixo 



naSojpXfj 



p 


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vO 


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CO 


M 


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N 


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H 


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r-^ 


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250 



FUEL TABLES, 






•qsv 



•J3JBAV 



•jnqdins 



C/3 

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pUB 



■uaSojpAH 






i-OOccOOc<>-cTfOc»r-» mc> 



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vO Ooo iicoi-hOOC^wcoO idO 
oo r^ r^ i^ r^co O^oo O co O c^ ON 



N C<^'<i-Tj-cnc<-)M N M C<^N 



o o o o o 



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251 





o 


1 |i 
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a. c J". . , . 

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Mayer 

Stillman & Jacobus 








■^OOOooOc^^'-'inO'^ Tj-co O en t^ ir> ^ O < 

N O en M M o^ -Ti-oo vo r^ c^ CO o c^o en o i^ O c 
en ■* O M f^ '^r%'^ CO OO^M mo irirt enco r^ u->a 

oo cxD t^ Ooo r-H G^ o o^ G^ Oco o-^ o^ o c^oo co o C 


DOOOOOOOOtn 
:>^r^M eno enM oo 
DMO T^ln^^r^MO O 
3MOOOOOMMO 

-IWMCSIMMC^MNM 












Cfl 

o 

5 


O en en N 0\\-< en vno ^O <N r^enencnr-^O eno m en OO r^ O oo O t^ 
co(NOr^Ot^>->TtcoocoOwcoi-iT^-:j-cncoOOcxDenoONC4 0^ 
t-i c^ oo cnr^oo O OO w oqo co r^ rt ^too o oo ^ en •'^o u-> r^ o w 
OOOOOOOmmmOOOOOOOOOmmmh-imOmmc^m 












c 

be 
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G 

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M o en N ei M M 




< 
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enM«nMNMO-*en d 




1 


enMoor^Mi^MNM or^O 


oo O'^'^tor^r^oo ^- a 
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enTfTj-enen-^en-^u^encncn 






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ui en O o ci •^ c^ voo O o en 


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ejooooooooooooooooooooooo 






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ddddd 6 6 6 2,0 * 6 6 6 6 6 

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6, 
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o 

a 


Heavy petroleum, W. Virginia. 
Light petroleum, '* 

" " Pennsylvania. 
Heavy petroleum, ** 

Ohio 

American oil sold in Paris 

" " heavy, < ' 

*' "refined, " 

" naphtha, " 

" crude, " 

Heavy Pennsylvania oil 

" W. Virginia oil 


Shoshone Reservation, Wyoming 
Salt Creek, Natrona Co., " 
Oil Mt., Natrona Co., " 
Newcastle, Weston Co., " 
Little Popo, Agie, " 

Lander 

Oil Creek. Pa 


8.1 

CO O 


<A 

u 

1 


c 
a 

1 


Pennsylvania crude 

California, Hayward Company. 
Lima. Ohio 


G 





252 



FUEL TABLES. 



1 


^ 
































i±2 










1 




■> 2 g 


>, 


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O u-ivo MOOr^OOOcoOOOr-^OioOcooOOcoi-H 


tj 


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C^ Tto »^0 -J-ir)ir)00 c^^r^rfTM c^m cno -1" m c^ m vO 


H 


oo r^cococooo Oco Om oo^C>or^cooooo (n OC O^mco 


m 




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OcoOoov/^MfncooOOOOMcncn mOOOOOO 


<u 


c^OM"^Oc<^-l-c^r^OvOMDOcn o^co r^ vn o O O o 'I- 


"C 


Mt~^0 -^O c^co cno r^f^ -tco cou->i-( Mvococ^t^r^c^ 


_o 


ooooooooi-ii-ioi-iooa^o ocjo'-iOi-io 


"rt 


M MMI-HI-Hh-(l-(l-(MI-i>-<MM l-< Mt-iWcHMMM 


U 


(->-. r>-. r>-. 


i-l 




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C/3 




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i-I 6»j^ci c^oMMdindpiN 


c 




> 

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tntHd^enNwaMciMcJer, p5M-j-Md con m to 




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c3 


Ttou^oNinr^-i-r^r^'dO'Or^-cAunr^ OO r^ ^j- 


oococooooocococooococooooocoooooco oooo oo oo 




O M 01 M M in -+O0 'l-O CO u-> Tj-oo oo oo oo 


oo i-i o^'^ r^oo ccoj ooioc) oo oococown 




r^ Ooo oococo ooo ooo^o^ O ooo^OO^O^ 


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d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d 


















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OILS, 



253 










lU 











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> > > d 




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s 






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oqSc^ %ih >m 




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NOOr^-OioOOe^^c^vOOOOOO^O 




coMoot^C^OOioOM •^00 O^ 10 Ooo M 




h 


M Ovo cnmt^c<^o M M Or^O OO cno 




r^co i^inr^r^vo o^oovoo 1^0 i^r^oo 




CQ 






ui 


•-< '^c«^'0 c^o cnc» w cnco cnc» oc-O 






^ ir^co vTi c^ CO M MO •^co c<-) (N r-^ '^00 m 






O^cnOOooO Omo ONC'-irfTf'^O 







0> O^CO 0^ 000 M OOO OOO^O^C^O 




rt 


IH M M M M 




u 






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M M M t^ 4 d d 




>> 






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CO r^oo CO QO 00 00 




v.* 


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j^i i^-.l^ 










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0. 


"^ a. 


£ 

'a 

t 

•1 

< 


£ 

f: 
c 

c: 

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1 


11 

oc 


Ozokerite oil ... . 
Heavy pine oil (bli 
Blast furnace oil,C 


H 


t^ 


■u 
•- 


s 

0) 

a, 

C/2 



>> 

'u 



Johnson 
Bunte 
Mahler 
Slosson 




rt M C^ CO 

CO CO C^ U-> IT) 

M ^ M 




CO rj- <N I^ 
to CO 
rt M o^ m CO 

CO O^QO Q^O 


< 


c^ 

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c 

3 
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C/2 


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CO 


2 




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00 x^o 

M CO 

r^ co\d 
r^co r^ 




> 







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c 


a 


c 


3 cJ c ^ 



254 



FUEL tables: 

















ca 












c 


c 






Ul 


o 
< 




Slocum 
R. Young 
H, Wurtz 
E. McMillin 
E. & M. Jour 


S. P. Sadtler 

F. C. Phillips 
S. A. Ford 
S, P. Sadtler 

Morrell 
<< 


Rogers 
Anon 





J3d -fiMa 



MO-TC^Oi-ia)OOOoooOu->MOc<^co>-'0 r^oo n w n- 
OOOOOOC7^i-'000>-icoOir>OOooaDOOC>0000 



J9d S3U01B3 



Tfi-Hco i^oooo OO O cno '^M M M Moovoco o oo^ ct>oo o 
Oco M r^ rj- O m inco lo c^ o^ en i^oo cnvo on ir>c^ c<^mior~^f'. 

ON o o CJNCO OOO OnQ^OOoo Oniocnqn i~^cc co oo oo C^ O^ O^oo 



vr, CO O vo 

1-1 h-i CJ i-i 

6 d d d 



uaSojii^ 



c<^ N en CO -1- 



•^ en CO en ?< 



CO 



•uaSAxQ 



<N o o o o o 



G O C^ O iH 



in 't u-> -1- '-' 



O O O O u 



o o o o o 



OOOOCONcn 



O lOOO <L> 

vO en m o 

d d d u 



o en en o o vo 



•siuBuiuinui 



■*H*D 'auaiAma 



O O O OO o 



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•uaSojpXH 



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ijr .ti oj cd <'] -— 

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2SS 



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r^coooo OMvo o^o^vO vr)r>.i-i qnco m mcnr^o ■^O O 
O^oo O^ O 0^ G^oo oo 0^c» O^ O^ (y' moo r^ vn in vo O O c^ 



■^Oiom'^N M i-i u-)0 'N^O O r^O M o O^cnoo i^r^r-^ 
O^ r^ O O^ O^oo CO oo OCX) oo O^co MOOvOrnvn u-5C>0>-i 



r>.vo o o r^ ■^ 



o^oooo ooo 

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M O M N c<-) 00 rj-o 



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to ^ 



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J2s6 



FUEL TABLES, 



ml 

I S ^_ o Q 

< w G 5 u 






HUH 






J3d 'S9UOIB3 



CO O M >^ C^ M OO r^ tn M vn M M O 

\0 "-O "^ r^cno iDinoOOvOOOO 



r^ uo M r^ c CO 



vr^Oi^c^^ Oco £01— o^ \rt O^ O ino 
r-»^Mco cncno O^mcnc^ c<^vo m c<^ 
i^ 'I- Oco r^ r^O coi-hOOO'^'^"^ 



m ■^ O O CO »r> 

CO too M vo a* 

M M vO CO ir> CO 

vO \r>\C> O vO O 



•aa^B^ 





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lo OQO vn o 
M CO «N M od 

M 




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c^ M CO r^ CO CO r^ 

4-o6 d CO covd CO 

h4 


o 
w 


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M ino o '-' ■* 
d CO 4 e^ in M 




•uaSXxQ 


CO M Tt lO 

d w d d 




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CO MM 

d d d 


t/i 

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in o 't r^ in 

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M O CO O CO 
lo in Tt ■4- d 


Tj- CO 


«= O u-> 

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fj M d sd "^ in 


O ino CO M 
r^ r^ t^ r^ m c> 

4 CO 4 CO 4 4 










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1^00 m O CO 1-1 CO 

CO M vd d od vd ^ 

CO "Si- CO -^ M CO CO 


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od r^co* d^ &^ in 

M CO CO CO CO CO CO 


O e< in o m 

d^ ci coco d o 

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"uaSoipiH 


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d d o6 o r^ 

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257 






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cfl a> "2 us 



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p9H3jnqdins 



■uaSojii^ 



O Tj-r^tnM co'^c^ O iri 00 N o en M o o t^ too i^ 
00 o t^O woo cnM ocni-i Ti-N c^ o lof^r^ cnoo m o o o 00 



•aaSAxQ 



M O M N M 

d d d d d 



0000000000 



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DiuoqjB^ 



10 00 o r^ "^ 



iriN u-)cncor-«Tj-vO cncncou-^o •*enir>'<^Ti-vO O 



•ppV 
DiaoqjBQ 



OOOOOOOw 



O CO o o o o 



O O c^ O O 



•sjuBuioinni 



cocoes O •^cor-i'^r^r^^'^Nvo ■^cocomvno ■^00 cn^o u^ 












•usSoip^H 



000 cno^ooo ■^coOvO r^Ocou-io O coioO coooo cocoo woo 
in^cncOTtTf^'^'^cn'^'^io'^'^ininTtvrj^rtco^in'rtcoM 



a : 

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258 



FUEL TABLES. 






J3d 'S9UOIB3 



< 
o 

H 



•uaSoJiifsj 



•uaSAxQ 



"sjuBuiuinm 



•3nBq53i^ 



•uaSojpXH 



G 

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CO "-^ t« c o .i2 9 
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j^^ p:i W W Ci^* ffi 



'o 
c 



vOi-i '^rt--fMMu-)cnO>-ic<^OO^coOr^>-i O 

ooo H^OMOc^c^-coTrcnoo^a>coooo'^ o 

CO CO vO IN CO Tt COvC (NOCOCOCONC^COCOCOCO '^ 



CO a^c^ r-^Tt'^l-w Ooo -tc^ OO -to^HH r^ 
cOu-)COvr>i-i CO-^O OO'^C^ NOO O rrco 
r^oo O t^ O OO O O covo r^o co co oo i-i 

ir)<N COCOCOtncvlvO COCOCOM M C^ C< C4 CO 



O CO n 



c^ "^ o o o 



Ttoo r-^ o CO r^vo i^ -^ 



cj O 

d d 



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AGITATOR, BERTHELOT'S, 27 
Aguitton's exp'ments on coal gas, 95 
Air, analysis (table), 207 

necessary for combustion, 125; 

(table 206), 
necessary for combustion 

(table), 201, 202 
used in combustion, 140 
Alexejew's calorimeter, 28 

Example, 29 
American Society of Mechanical 
Engineers, boiler-test re- 
port. 177 
Analysis, Cinders, 115 
, Coal, 113 

, should show what, 114 
, Coke, 82 
, Gases, 134 
, Lignite, 78 
, Manchester gas, 93 
, Peat, 80 
, Proximate, 77 
, Waste gases (table), 135, 136 
, Wood, 84 
Andrews' calorimeter, 47 
Anemometer, Fan-wheel, 144 

, Fletcher's, 145 
Apparatus for steam-boiler testing 
should be correct, 182 
, Installation of, 13 
, Hirn's, 146 
, Orsat-Muencke, 135 
Aqueous vapor, Heat of, 159 
Ash, Analysis of, 115 
, Lignite, 78 
, Peat, 80 

, Treatment of, 188 
Aspirator, Oil, 133 
Atomic calorie, 2 
Atwater's calorimeter, 71 

BARRUS'S CALORIMETER, 38 
Berthelot's agitator, 27 
bomb, 48 



Bituminous schist, 79 

Boghead coal, 79 

Boiler-testing. See Steam-boiler 
Testing. 

Bomb. See Calorimeter. 

Briquettes, how made, 51 

British thermal units, 2 

" " "to change to 

calories, 3 

Brix's experiments with charcoal, 84 

Bueb-Dessau's experiments on coal 
gas, 95 

Bunsen's researches on flame, 168 

Bunte's experiments on coal, 76 
gas-coke determinations, 9 
experiments on waste gases, 136 

Burnat's smoke tests, 155 

CALCULATION 

Air necessary for combustion, 125 

Air supplied, 140 

Calories of the boiler test, 159 

Calories of carbon, 54 

Carpenter's calorimeter, 34 

Carbon, 54 

Coal, 66 

Coke, 68 

Colza oil, 64 

Favre and Silbermann's calorim- 
eter, 26 

Flame temperature, 169 

Gases, 67, 94 

Heat units of boiler trial, 159 

Heat units by lead test, 10 

Heat units from chemical com- 
position, 7 

Junker's calorimeter, 41 

Mahler's calorimeter, 61 

" *' ; abridged, 70 

Regnault and Pfaundler's, 18 

Vapor of carbon, 173 

Volume of waste gases, 144 

Water value of calorimeters, 14 



63 



263 



264 



INDEX. 



Calculation; Weight of waste gases, 

142 
Calories, atomic or molecular, 2 
Kilo-, 3 
Pound-, 2 

To change to B. T. U., 3. See 
Heat Units 
Calorific power, 2 

Ratio of, to fixed carbon, 78 
Calorimeter, Alexejew, 28 
Analytical, 74a 
Andrews, 47 
Atwarer, 71 
Barrus, 38 
Berthelot, 48 

corrections, 53 

examples, 54 

operation, 53 
Bunsen's, 74^ 
Carpenter's, 31 

calculation, 34 
Constant pressure, 20 
Constant volume, 45 
Constant pressure and volume, 

ratio of, 45 
Correction for F. and S., 16 

Berthelot, 53 

cooling, 18, 60 

Junker's, 42 

Regnault and Pfaundler's, 18 
Cost of, 27 
Dieterici's, 74^ 
Dulong, 20 

Evaluation in water. See Calo- 
rimeter, Water value 
Favre and Silbermann, 21 

Calculation, 26 

in complete combustion with, 
23, 25 
Fischer, 29*^ 
Hartley, 40 
Hempel, 74 
Herrmann, 'j\b 
Herschel's, 74^: 
Ice, 74fl! 
Junker, 40 

calculation, 41 

errors, 42 
Kroeker, 73 
Mahler, 57 

and Berthelot compared, 70 

calculation, 61 
, abridged, 70 

enamel chips off, 58 (foot-note) 

examples, 64 

for gases, 62 

operation, 59 



Calorimeter, Protection for, 13 
Rumford, 20 
Schwackhofer, 35 
waste gases, 37 
Schulla and Wurtha, 74<f 
Thompson, L., 43 
Thompson, W., 37 
Thomsen, 30 
Throttling, 117 
von Than's, 7411^ 
Walther-Hempel, ']i\a. 
Water value 

, Berthelot's calorimeter, 14 
by combustion, 14 
by mixing, 15 

Favre and Silbermann's cal- 
orimeter, 14 
Fischer's calorimeter, 30 
Lord and Haas' calorimeter, 14 
Mahler's calorimeter, 14, 63 
Witz, 74a 
Calorimeter and separator, 124^;' 
Calorimeters, 12 
Calorimetric eudiometer, 47 
Candle power and heat of combus- 
tion compared, 96 
Cannel coal, 79 

Carbon, calculation of calories, 54 
calories by various authors, 12 
in cinders, T15 
" smoke, 154 

" '* ; analysis of, 154, 190 
oxygen necessary for, 125 
vapor, weight, and calories, 173 
Carpenter's calorimeter, 31 
Carbonic acid. Automatic determi- 
nation of, 147, 148, 150 
in producer gases. See Gas 

Producer 
in waste gases, 81, 84, 91, 135, 

138, 155 
, proper proportion in waste 
gases, 136 
Carbonic oxide. Flame temperature 
of, 170 
in producer gas, 99 
in waste gases, 84, 91, loi, 134, 
138 (table 136), 164 
Cellulose, calories of, 85 
Charbon roux, 83 
Charcoal, peat, 80 
wood, 83 

; Brix's tests, 84 

, half-burnt, 83 

: Sauvage's tests, 83 

; Scheurer-K.'s results, 84 

, Waste gases of, 84 



INDEX. 



265 



Cinder, Analysis of, 115 

Coal, Actual evaporation of, 76 

, Air necessary, 126 

, " supplied, 139 

Analysis, 113; (tables), 209-243 
" should show what, 114 

Bunte's experiments, 76 

Calories of, 66 

Difference in samples of, 113 

Gruner's table, 77 

Heat of combustion (table), 198, 
209 

Johnson's tests, 75 

Moisture in, 112, 114, 187 

Morin and Tresca's tests, 75 

Pure, 75 

Ratio of calories and fixed car- 
bon, 77 

Ratio of hyd'gen and carbon, 78 

Sampling, 112, 187 

Size for combustion, 24 

Uniformity in same bed, 112 

Weight of, III 
Coal gas. See Gas, Coal. 
Coke, calories of, 68 

, composition of, 82 

, heat of combustion (table), 247 

, kinds of, 81 

, use of, 82 
Colza oil, calories of, 64 
Combustion. Air necessary, 125 

Air supplied, 140 

Heat of. See Heat of Combus- 
tion 

incomplete in F. and S. calorim- 
eter, 23 
Constant pressure, 20, 45 
" volume, 45 
" " relation of, to 

constant pressure, 45 
Cooling, Newton's law, 60 

Regnault-Pfaundler's law, 18 
Corrections for Berthelot calorim- 
eter, 53 

Cooling, 18, 60 

Junker calorimeter, 42 



DASYMETER, 147 

Differential gauge, Segur's, 146 

Dissociation, Effect of, upon tem- 
perature, 168 

Dulong's calorimeter, 20 

Dulong's formula, 7 

, Agreement of, with test, 9 

, Mahler's limit to, 10 (foot-note) 

heat unit, 21 



ECONOMETER, 148 
Efficiency of steam-boilers, 190 
Electric igniter. Heat of, 70 
Evaluation in water. See Water 

Value 
Evaporative effect of coal, 76 
, Factor for, 174 
power of fuel, 174 
" " charcoal, 84 
" gas, 93 
" lignite, 79 
" " peat, 80 
" " wood, 86 
Evaporative power petroleum, 91a 
of natural gas, 107 
unit, 179 
Examples, Alexejew's calorimeter, 
29 
Berthelot's calorimeter. 
Carpenter's " 

Favre and S. " 

Mahler's " 



54 
34 
26 
64 



FAN-WHEEL ANEMOMETER, 144 
Favre and S.'s calorimeter, 21 
Fischer's calorimeter, 29/^ 
Flame, 168 

Bunsen's researches, 168 
length, 169 

not due to incandescence, 168 
not due to solid particles, 168 
Propagation of, 168 
temperature. Calculation of, 169 
, Loss due to dissociation, 16S 
acetylene, 170 
bor-methyl, 168 
carbon and carbonic oxide, 170 
hydrogen, 169 

marsh and olefiant gases, 171 
oils. 172 
petroleum, 172 

producer and other gases, 171 
solid fuels, 172 
table, 200 
Fletcher's anemometer, 145 
Flue-gas. See Waste Gases 
Formula, Balling's, 8 
Burnat's, 144 
Dulong's, 7 
German Engineers', 8 
Hirn's, 147 
Jacobus's, 144 
Mahler's, 9 
Quality of steam, 119 
Regnault, for vaporization, 4 
Regnault and Pfaundler's, 18 
Schwackhofer's. 8 



266 



INDEX. 



Formula, Superheated steam, 123 

Throttling calorimeter, 122 

Vaporization of water, 4 

Waste gases, weight, 142, 144 

Welter's, 10 
Fuel, Air required for, 125 ; table, 
206 

Air supplied to, 140 

Calorific power under steam- 
boiler, 109 

Evaporative power, 174 

Gaseous, 92 

Weight of, III 
Fuels, I 

, Division of, I 

Tables, 209 

GAS, COAL 

Aguitton's experiments, 95 
Bueb-Dessau's experiments, 95 
Heat of combustion (table), 254 
Mahler's experiments, 96 
Variation in, 95 

Gas-composimeter, 150 

Gas, gasogene; heat theory, 97 
Loss of calories, 98 
Value, 97 
Varieties, 98 

Gas-holder, Oil, 133 

Gas, Natural. See Natural Gas 

Gag, Producer; Heat theory of, 99 
Heat of combustion (table), 260 
Mahler's experiments, 101 

Gas-sampler, A. S. M. E., 131 
Jones's, 132 
Scheurer-Kestner's, 128 

Gas, water. See Water Gas 

Gaseous fuels, 92 

Gases, Analysis, 134 
as fuel, 92 

Calculation of calories, 67 
Comparative value, 107 
Heat of combustion (tables), 254 
Heat of combustion from analy- 
sis, 93 
Heat units, 164; table, 203 

*' " example, 105 

Ignition point (table), 207 
Weight and volume (table), 200 
Specific heat (table), 204 

Gases, waste. See Waste Gases 
Specific heat of (table), 205 

Gottlieb's wood tests, 86 

Gruener's coal table, 77 

HEAT 

balance in boiler trials, 191 



Heat, Loss of, in producer gas, 104 
of aqueous vapor, 159 
combination, 94 
combustible gases, 164 
combustion, 3 

and candle power, 96 
; Calculated vs. det'mined, 9 
Cause of disagreement, 10 
Determination of, 3, 4 
From chem. composition, 7 
, Litharge or lead test, 10 
Methods of determining, 7 
of carbon, 12, 54 
carbon vapor, 173 
coal, 66 
coke, 68 
colza oil, 64 
constant pressure, 20 
constant pressure and volume, 

45 
electric igniter, 70 
fuels (tables), 209 
gas, 67 

gases, calculation, 68, 93 
gases, difference in, 94 
gases, modified by condensa- 
tion, 94 
gases (table), 203, 254 et seq. 
hydrogen, 97 
hygroscopic water, 162 
marsh gas, 97 
natural gas, 106; table, 254 
oils (table), 251 
defiant gas, 97 
petroleum, 90 

sensible of the temperature, 160 
soot, 166 
vaporization of water, 4; table, 

205 
variable subst. (table), 198 
water of combustion, 162 
Specific; gases (table), 204 
waste gases (table), 205 
water (table), 205, 208 
Heat units, Dulong's, 21 

from chemical composition, 7 
lead reduction test, 10 
Ratio of, to fixed carbon, 77 
of steam-boiler tests, Cal'tion, 159 
of steam-boiler tests. Distribu- 
tion, 167 
Heat value, 2 

of fuels (tables), 209 
Heating by charcoal, 84 
coke, 82 
gas, 92 
lignite, 78 



INDEX. 



267 



Heating by oil, 8g, go 
peat^ 80 
wood, 84 
Hirn's waste-gas apparatus, 146 

formula, 147 
Horse power, Commercial, 179 
Hydrocarbons, Unconsumed, 25 
Hydrogen, Calories of, 4 

in cinders, 115 

, Oxygen necessary for, 125 

ICE CALORIMETERS, 74rz 
Igniter, electric, Heat of, 70 
Ignition point of gases (table), 207 
Incandescence not flame, 168 
Indiana natural gas analyses, 105 
Installation of apparatus, 13 

JACOBUS'S FORMULA, 144 
Johnson's coal tests, 75 
Junker's calorimeter, 40 

KENT ON WASTE GASES, 142 

Kent pressure gauge, I47« 

Kent's ratio of hydrogen and carbon 

in coal, 78 
revision of Johnson's tests, 75 
Kilo-calorie, 3 
Kroeker calorimeter and correction 

for water, 73 

LEAD OR LITHARGE TEST, 10 

is unreliable, 11 
Lignite, 78 

, Heat of combustion (table), 231 
Lord and Haas on Ohio and Penn- 
sylvania coal, 9 
Luminosity, 168 

depends on pressure, 169 

not due to solid particles, 168 

MAHLER'S CALORIMETER, 57 
determinations of gas, loi 
experiments on coal gas, 96 
formula, g 

Manchester gas. Analysis of, 93 

Mixed gas, loi 

Moisture in coal, 112, 114 

Moisture in steam, 119, 124, 186 

Molecular calorie, 2 

Morin and Tresca on coal, 75 

Morin and Tresca's wood tests, 86 

t 

NAPHTHALIN. CALORIES OF, 46 

Natural gas and analysis of, 105 
Calories of, 106; (table), 254 
Value of, 106 



Natural gas, Variation in, 105 
Nitrogen, ratio of, to oxygen 

(table), 207 
Nixon's coal ; calories of, deter- 
mined, 66 

OHIO NATURAL GAS, 105 

Oil-aspirator or gas-holder, 132 
Oils, Heat of combustion (table), 251 
Orsat-Muencke apparatus, 135 
Oven cokes, Heat of combustion 

(table), 247 
Oxygen, Compressed, is dry, 52 
in cylinders, 59 
necessary for combustion, 125 

(table), 
201, 202 
, Ratio of, to nitrogen in air 

(table), 207 
required to form water with coal, 

140; (table), 206 
To prepare, 24 

PASTILLES, HOW MADE, 51 
Peat, 80 

; Calories of (table), 245 
Petroleum, 88 

, Calories of (table), 251 

, Calorific power of, go, 251 

, Efficiency with, c^ib 

heating tests, 90 

locomotive practice, gir 

, Steam used in atomizing, 91 

superior to coal, 91 

, Waste gases from, (^ib 

, Why high heat yield, 91^ 
Pittsburg natural gas, 105 
Pneumatic pyrometer, 152 
Pound-calorie, 2 
Pressure gauges 

Anemometer, 144, 145 

Hirn's, 146 

Kent's, 147a 

Segur's, 146 
Producer gas, 98. See Gas, Producer 
Products of combustion of 

Alexejew's calorimeter, 28 

charcoal, 84 

Favre and Silbermann's calorim- 
eter, 26 

oil, 91 

Schwackhofer's calorimeter. 37. 
See Waste Gases 
Pyrometer, Pneumatic, 152 

REGNAULT'S FORMULA, 4 
Regnault and Pfaundler's law, i3 



j68 



INDEX. 



Ringelmann's smoke scale, 158 
Ronchamp coal, Smoke of, 156 

" " Waste gases of, 135 

Rothkohle, 83 
Rumford's calorimeter, 20 

SAMPLER, GAS, 128, 131, 132 
Sauvage's exp'ments on charcoal, 83 
Scheurer-Kestner's experiments on 
charcoal, 84 
gas sampler, 128 
smoke analysis, 155 
and Meunier-Dollfus on coal, 75 
Schist, Bituminous, 79 
Schwackhofer's calorimeter, 35 
Segur's differential gauge, 146 
Sensitiveness of thermometers, 6 
Shale oil, 88 

Smoke, Bunte's observations, 157 
Burnat's experiments, 155 
Carbon in, 154 
Cohen and Russell's experiments, 

I58« 
Fritzsche's method, 158a 
Ringelmann's scale, 158 
Scheurer-Kestner's analysis, 155 
Tatlock's tests, 155 
Soda-lime for absorbing moisture, 23 
Soot, Heat units of, 166 
Specific heat. See Heat, Specific 
*' " of water not consid- 

ered, 3 
Steam, Moisture in, 117, 119, 186 
, Moisture in flowing, 124 
, Quality of, 119, 186 
, Superheated, 123 
, Temperature of, 116 
used in atomizing petroleum, 91^ 
Steam-boilers, petroleum-fired, 91 

, Lignite-fired, 79 
Steam-boiler testing 

apparatus to be correct, 182 
Ashes and residues, 188 
Analysis of cinders, 115 
" " coal, 113 

" " waste gases, 134, 

189 
Boiler and chimney to be 

heated, 182 
Calculation of air necessary, 125 
" " supplied, 140 
" " heat units, 159 

" " waste gases, 137, 

142, 147 
Carbon in smoke, 154 
Coal used, 181 
Corrections of apparatus, 182 1 



Steam-boiler testing, determine 

what, 109 
Distribution of calories, 167, 

191 
Distribution of heat, 109 
Duration of test, 115 
Early tests, 109 
Efficiency, 190 

Examination of boiler, etc., 181 
Heat balance, 191 
Heat tests and coal anal., 189 
Johnson's tests, 109 
Keeping records, 185 
Moisture in steam, 117, 186 
Moisture in flowing steam, 124 
Need of knowledge of calories 

in, 109 
Preliminaries of, 180 
Quality of steam, 119, 186 
Report of A. S. M. E. com- 
mittee, 177 
Report of trial, 192 

short form, 196 
Sampling the coal, 112 
Scheurer-Kestner's tests, no 
Starting and stopping, 184 
Temperature of steam, 116 
Temperature of waste gases, 15 1 
Volume of air necessary, 125 
" " supplied, 140 

" " waste gases, 127 
Waste gas samples and analy- 

sis, 134, 189 
Water evaporated, 116 
Weight of fuel, in 

*' " waste gases, 142 
What is necessary, no 
Sulphur, oxygen necessary for, 126 

TABLE; AIR COMPONENTS, 207 
Air for combustion, 201, 202 

" for perfect combustion, 206 
Ash analyses, 115 
Candle power and heat of com- 

bustion, 96 
Coal (Gruner's), 77 
Coke analyses, 82 
Distribution of calories, 167 
Flame temperatures, 200 
Fuels, 209 
Heat balance, 191 
Heat of combustion, 198 



of cokes 
" fuels, 
" gases, 
" lignites, 23 
" oils, 251 



247 
209 
202, 254 



INDEX. 



269 



Table; Heat of combustion of peat, 
245 
" " " " wood, 86, 246 

" " vapor'n of water, 205 
Ignition point of gases, 207 
Natural gas, 105, 106, 254 
Oxygen for combustion, 201, 202 
Oxygen to form water, 206 
Regnault and Pfaundler's law, 18 
Ronchamp coal waste gases, 135 
Smoke analyses, 157 
Specific heat of gases, 204 

" " " waste gases, 205 

" " " water, 205, 208 

Thermometer reduction, igg 
Waste gas analyses, 135, 136 
Water value calculation, 15 
Weight and volume of gases, 200 
WoJd, 86 

Tatlock's smoke tests, 155 

Temperature, Heat of sensible, 160 
" of waste gases, 151 

Thermal units, 2 

Thermometer, 4 

, Correction, mercury column, 6 
, Favre and Silbermann's, 6 
, Metastatic, 6 
, reduction table, 199 
Sensibility of, 6 

Thomsen's calorimeter, 30 

Thompson's, L., calorimeter, 43 

Thompson's, W., " 37 

Throttling calorimeter, 117 

UNIT OF EVAPORATION, 179 

Units of heat, 3 

VAPORIZATION OF WATER, 4 
Vaporization of water (table), 205 
Variation in coal gas, 95 

" " natural gas, 105 



WASTE GAS ANALYSIS, 189 
Waste gases, automatic apparatus 
for, 147^ 
, Bunte's results, 136 
from charcoal, 84 
petroleum, 91 
" Ronchamp coal, 135 
, Heat of, 160 
, Hirn's apparatus, 146 

" formula, 147 
, Schwackhofer's calorimeter, 37 
(table), 135, 136 
, Temperature of, 151 
Volume of, 127, 144 
Water evaporated, 116 

, Heat of combination, 162 

, Heat of vapo'rization of, 4; 

table, 205 
, Hygroscopic, heat of, 162 
in lignite, 78 
in peat, 80 
, Kroeker's correction for, 73 
, Specific heat (table), 208 
, Specific heat of, not considered, 

3 
-value of cal'meters, 14, 15, 30, 63 
Water gas, 101 

, Heat of combustion of (table), 

258 ^^ seq. 
Theory, 102 
Loss of heat, 104 
Weight of carbon vapor, 173 
fuel, III 
waste gases, 142 
Witz calorimeter, 47 
Wood, condition for burning, 87 
Gottlieb's tests, 86 
Calories (table). 86, 246 
Hydrate of carbon, 84 
Morin and Tresca's tests, 86 
Wood charcoal. See Charcoal Wood 



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Wood's Co-ordinate Geometry Svo, 2 00 

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Text-books and Practical Works. 
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Barr's Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 

Benjamin's Wrinkles and Recipes 12mo, 

XDhordal's Letters to Mechanics 12mo, 

Church's Mechanics of Engineering Svo, 

" Notes and Examples in Mechanics Svo, 

■Crehore's Mechanics of the Girder Svo, 

Cromwell's Belts and Pulleys .12mo, 

" Toothed Gearing 12mo, 

Compton's First Lessons in Metal Working 12mo, 

Compton and De Groodt's Speed Lathe 12rao, 

Dana's Elementary Mechanics 12mo, 

Dingey's Machinery Pattern Making 12mo, 

Dredge's Trans. Exhibits Building, World Exposition. 

Large 4to, half morocco, 

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Vol. IL, Statics Svo, 

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Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist ISmo, 

Flather's Dynamometers 12mo, 

Rope Driving 12mo, 

Hall's Car Lubrication 12mo, 

Holly's Saw Filing ISmo, 

Johnson's Theoretical Mechanics. An Elementary Treatise. 
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Jones's Machine Design. Part I., Kinematics Svo, 1 50 

12 



2 50 


2 50 


2 00 


2 00 


6 00 


2 00 


5 00 


1 50 


1 50 


1 50 


1 50 


1 50 


2 00 


[0 00 


3 50 


4 00 


3 50 


1 00 


2 00 


2 00 


1 00 


75 



Jones's Machine Design. Part II., Strength and Proportion of 

Machine Parts 8vo, |3 00 

Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, 7 50 

MacCord's Kinematics 8vo, 5 OO 

Merriman's Mechanics of Materials Svo, 4 OO 

Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures Svo, 5 OO 

*Michie's Analytical Mechanics . Svo, 4 00 

Richards's Compressed Air 12mo, 1 50 

Robinson's Principles of Mechanism Svo, 3 00 

Smith's Press-working of Metals Svo, H OO 

Thurston's Friction and Lost Work Svo, 3 00 

" The Animal as a Machine 12mo, 1 00 

Warren's Machine Construction 2 vols., Svo, 7 50 

Weisbach's Hydraulics and Hydraulic Motors. (Du Bois.).,Svo, 5 00 
" Mechanics of Engineering. Yol. III., Part I., 

Sec. L (Klein.) Svo, 5 OO 

Weisbach's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. III., Part I., 

Sec. IL (Klein.) Svo, 5 OO 

Weisbach's Steam Engines. (Du Bois.). = Svo, 5 OO 

Wood's Analytical Mechanics Svo, 8 00 

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Ibon— Gold— Silver — Alloys, Etc. 

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.* " " Steel, Fuel, etc Svo, 

Kunhardt's Ore Dressing in Europe Svo, 

Metcalf's Steel — A Manual for Steel Users 12mo, 

O'Driscoll's Treatment of Gold Ores Svo, 

Thurston's Iron and Steel Svo, 

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Wilson's Cyanide Processes 12mo, 

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Boyd's Resources of South Western Virginia Svo, 3 00 

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Brush and Penfield's Determinative Mineralogy. New Ed. Svo, 4 00 

13 



3 00 


7 50 


7 50 


15 00 


15 00 


1 50 


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2 00 


3 50 


2 50 


1 50 



Chester's Catalogue of Miuerals 8vo, 

Paper, 

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Daua's American Localities of Minerals Large 8vo, 

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4to, half morocco, 

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Eissler's Explosives — Nitroglycerine and Dynamite 8vo, 

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Kunhardt's Ore Dressing in Europe 8vo, 

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Rocks. (Iddings.) 8vo, 

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Walke's Lectures on Explosives 8vo, 

Williams's Lithology 8vo, 

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MacCord's Slide Valve 8yo, 

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" Thermodynamics of the Steam Engine 8vo, 

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Pray's Twenty Years with the Indicator Large 8vo, 

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14 



$1 25 


50 


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1 50 


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25 00 


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4 00 


2 00 


4 00 


1 50 


2 00 


50 


5 00 


7 00 


2 50 


4 00 


3 00 


1 25 


2 50 



2 50 


4 00 


1 00 


2 00 


1 50 


1 50 


2 00 


00 


4 00 


1 00 


5 00 


2 50 


2 50 


1 25 



Heagan's Steam and Electric Locomotives 12mo, $2 00 

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" Engine and Boiler Trials 8vo, 5 00 

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2 parts, 10 00 

Thurston's Philosophy of the Steam Engine 12mo, 75 

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12mo, 1 50 

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IVood's Thermodynamics, Heat Motors, etc Bvo, 4 00 

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Fisher's Table of Cubic Yards Cardboard, 25 

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15 



MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS. 

Alcott's Gems, Sentiment, Language Gilt edges, $5 00 

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Emmou's Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountains, .8vo, 1 50 

Ferrel's Treatise on the Winds 8vo, 4 OO 

Haines's Addresses Delivered before the Am. Ry. Assn. ..12mo, 2 50 

Mott's The Fallacy of the Present Theory of Sound. .Sq. IGuio, 1 00 

Richards's Cost of Liviug 12mo, 1 00- 

Ricketts's History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 8vo, 3 OO 

Rotherham's The New Testament Criticallj' Emphasized. 

12mo, 1 50 
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Large 8vo, 2 OO 

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Steel's Treatise on the Diseases of the Ox 8vo, 6 00 

Treatise on the Diseases of the Dog 8vo, 3 50 

Woodhuli's Military Hygiene 16mo, 1 50 

Worcester's Small Hospitals — Establishment and Maintenance, 
including Atkinson's Suggestions for Hospital Archi- 
tecture... 00 o.l2mo, 1 25 

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